Propaganda of Fascist Italy

The propaganda used by the National Fascist Party (PNF) in the years leading up to and during Benito Mussolini's leadership of Italy (1922–1943) was a crucial instrument for acquiring and maintaining power, and for the implementation of Fascist policies.

History of Fascist propaganda

Early Fascist Party (1919–1922)

Since the formation of the Italian Fasces of Combat in 1919, the Fascists made heavy use of propaganda, including pageantry and rhetoric, to inspire the nation into the unity that would obey. The Party's main propaganda tool was ''Il Popolo d'Italia'' ("The People of Italy"), a newspaper founded by Benito Mussolini in 1914, advocating militarism and Italian irredentism.

During these years, Fascist propaganda was mostly targeted at opposing the Italian Socialist Party (PSI), the largest political movement in the country and the Fascists' main antagonist to power. The PSI was accused of being a sock puppet of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, being often labeled as a "Russian army." These sentiments were often shared by the Italian liberal establishment which, despite condemning Fascist violence, was more afraid of a Bolshevik revolution.R. J. B. Bosworth, ''Mussolini's Italy'', p.146 Max Gallo, ''Mussolini's Italy'', p. 122 Macmillan Publishing Co. Inc., 1973 New York

In addition to attacking the socialists through ''Il Popolo d'Italia'', Mussolini often also attacked the liberal establishment of the Kingdom of Italy, responsible for the so-called "mutilated victory", a term used to describe Italian nationalists' dissatisfaction concerning territorial rewards at the end of World War I.

In power (1922–1943)

Once in power, all propaganda efforts were grouped together under the press office; propaganda efforts were slowly organized until a Ministry of Popular Culture was created in 1937.Anthony Rhodes, ''Propaganda: The art of persuasion: World War II'', p70-1 1976, Chelsea House Publishers, New York A special propaganda ministry was created in 1935, claiming that its purpose was to tell the truth about fascism, to refute the lies of its enemies, and to clear up ambiguities, which were only to be expected in so large and dynamic a movement.

Themes

Personality cult

Il Duce was the center of Fascism and portrayed as such.Alastair Hamilton, ''The Appeal of Fascism'' p73 Macmillan New York 1971 The cult of the Duce was in many respects ''the'' unifying force of the fascist regime, acting as a common denominator of various political groups and social classes in the fascist party and the Italian society. This leadership cult helped reconcile Italians with the regime despite annoyance with local officials. A basic slogan proclaimed that Mussolini was always right ( it, Il Duce ha sempre ragione).R. J. B. Bosworth, ''Mussolini's Italy'', p3

Endless publicity revolved about Mussolini with newspapers being instructed on exactly what to report about him.Professor John Pollard, ''Mussolini's Rivals: The Limits of the Personality Cult in Fascist Italy''

He was generally portrayed in a ''macho'' manner, although he could also appear as a Renaissance man, or as military, family, or even common. This reflected his presentation as a universal man, capable of all subjects; a light was left on in his office long after he was asleep as part of propaganda to present him as an insomniac owing to his driven to work nature. Mussolini as a practitioner of various sports such as fencing, auto racing, skiing, horse riding, lion taming and swimming was promoted to create an image of a valiant and fearless hero.Simonetta Falasca-Zamponi (2000), ''Fascist spectacle: the aesthetics of power in Mussolini's Italy'', University of California Press, pp. 68-70, Mussolini's prestige as a hero aviator in the manner of Charles Lindbergh was especially important, as for fascism the aeroplane embodied qualities such as dynamism, energy and courage. Mussolini himself oversaw which photographs could appear, rejecting some, for instance, because he was not sufficiently prominent in a group.

Mussolini's youthfulness (when he took office, he became the youngest prime minister in Italian history), and his virile and energetic appearance were promoted.Falasca-Zamponi, S. (2000), pp. 72–73 In fascist symbolism, youth constituted a metaphor for action and vitality, thus emphasizing fascism's nature as a revolutionary ideology in contrast to the stasis of liberal democracy. The official hymn of the fascist movement, ''Giovinezza'', links the concepts of youth, the rebirth of the nation and the reign of Mussolini into symbolic unity. The publicizing of Mussolini's birthdays and illnesses were banned for journalists, to give an impression of him not aging. The erotic aspect of the cult was also prominent: although Mussolini was portrayed as a respectable family man, at the same time state propaganda did little to counter the idea that he had sexual magnetism to women and was promiscuous.Christopher Duggan, 2008, ''The Force of Destiny: A History of Italy Since 1796'', pp. 479–480 Houghton Mifflin Harcourt,

Legends of Mussolini defying death during the First World War and surviving assassination attempts were circulated to give the dictator a mythical, immortal aura. It was stated that Mussolini's body had been pierced by shrapnel just like Saint Sebastian had been pierced by arrows; the difference being that Mussolini had survived this ordeal. He was also compared to Saint Francis of Assisi, who had, like Mussolini, "suffered and sacrificed himself for others".Falasca-Zamponi (2000), pp. 65–66 Mussolini's humble origin was described with explicit parallels with the life of Christ: when writing about his blacksmith father and mother, fascist propaganda presented them symbolically as the Holy Family ("They are but Mary and Joseph in relation to Christ").Christopher Duggan, 2008, ''The Force of Destiny: A History of Italy Since 1796'', p. 479 Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, His home town of Predappio was developed as a place of mass tourism and symbolic pilgrimage. The Vatican implied that heavenly powers were aware that Mussolini had saved Italy from bolshevism and thus protected him. Pope Pius XI referred to him as "the man of Providence" during the aftermath of the Lateran treaty. The press described his speeches as sacramental meetings of ''Duce'' and people. Mussolini's melodramatic style of oratory was both pantomimic and liturgical, with exaggerated poses and hand movements and prominent variations in the pitch and tone of his voice.Christopher Duggan, 2008, ''The Force of Destiny: A History of Italy Since 1796'', pp. 477–478 Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, Mussolini intended his speeches to be faith-inspiring theatrical performances, stating that "the crowd does not have to know; it must believe".

In addition to being depicted as being chosen by God, the regime presented Mussolini himself having omnipotent or godlike characteristics, such as being able to work superhuman amounts (14–16 hours) daily and never appearing tired.Falasca-Zamponi (2000), pp. 67-68 Fascist newspapers implied even that Mussolini had performed miracles, such as stopping the lava flow of Mount Etna, and invoking rain in the drought-suffering Libya during his visit to the region in March 1937. A story of a deaf-mute boy being cured after listening in a crowd to a speech of the Duce was told in an elementary school manual.Christopher Duggan, 2008, ''The Force of Destiny: A History of Italy Since 1796'', p. 478 Houghton Mifflin Harcourt,

His overtly belligerent image did not prevent newspapers from declaring he had done more for peace than anyone else, on the principle that Mussolini always did better than everyone else.Denis Mack Smith, ''Mussolini's Roman Empire'', p. 124

His image proclaimed that he had improved the Italian people morally, materially, and spiritually.

He was the Duce and proclaimed in song even before the seizure of power.

The war on Ethiopia was presented as a revival of Roman Empire, with Mussolini as Augustus.

To improve fascism's image in North Africa and Levant and to gain Arab support, Mussolini had himself declared the "Protector of Islam" during an official visit to Italian Libya in 1937.

Action

Fascism was among the most visible of movements that exulted action over talk and violence over reason, partly stemming from World War I. This was used to justify taking up notions and dropping them again.

Economic issues were presented in a heroic and militaristic manner, with programs being termed the Battle of Wheat and the Battle of the Lira.

Military matters were also straightforwardly praised, with the aim of primacy on land, sea, and air. Because war was to man what maternity was to woman, disarmament was impossible.

War and killing were praised as the essence of manhood. A Fascist encyclopedia proclaimed, "Nothing is ever won in history without bloodshed." This drew upon older themes, exulted in World War I, with injunctions that suffering was necessary for greatness. World War I was often cited in Fascist propaganda, with many prominent Fascists displaying many medals from the conflict. To such figures as Gabriele d'Annunzio, the return of peace meant only the return of the humdrum, while the ideal was still war, themes that Fascism drew into its propaganda. Mussolini, shortly before the seizure of power, proclaimed violence better than compromise and bargaining. Afterwards, there was a prolonged period where the absence of military action did not prevent the government from many belligerent statements. Interviews appearing in foreign press, where Mussolini spoke of wanting peace, had that portion censored out before appearing in Italian papers. Italian victories in the Spanish Civil War, in which the Royal Italian Army sent the Corpo Truppe Volontarie to intervene on behalf of the Nationalists, were heralded in the Fascist state media. The annexation of Albania was presented as a splendid act of aggression. In the run-up to World War II, Mussolini's claim he could field 8 million was quickly exaggerated to 9 million, and then to 12 million. The continually bellicose pose created an embarrassment with the outbreak of World War II, where failure to join the war would undermine the propaganda effect.

The Italians were called to be like Roman legionaries, while their opponents were depicted as weak and enthralled by money. Great Britain was denounced in particular, although both France and later the United States (when its sympathies were clearly turning toward the Allies) also came in for abuse.

Heroism was exaggerated. Fascist violence prior to their seizure of power was legitimized.R. J. B. Bosworth, ''Mussolini's Italy'', p. 134 The March on Rome was presented, mythically, as a bloody and heroic seizure of power.

Futurism was a useful part of the cultural scene, owing to its militaristic elements.

A fascist doctrine was first set forth in '' The Manifesto of the Fasci of Combat''. Years later, a different set of ideas were enumerated in ''The Doctrine of Fascism'' purportedly written entirely by Benito Mussolini, although he only wrote the second part, while the first part was actually also written by Giovanni Gentile.

Fascism's internal contradictions, such as its changing official doctrines, were justified by Mussolini as a product of its nature: a doctrine of action, a revolt against the conformity and alienation of bourgeois society.

Unity

National and social unity was symbolized by the ''fasces'' themselves, the bound sticks being stronger together than individually. This drew on military themes from World War I, where Italians were called to pull together into a unity. Mussolini openly proclaimed that Fascists were willing to kill or die when it was a question of the fatherland as the March on Rome was prepared. Similarly, he declared that the State did not weaken the individual, any more than a soldier was weakened by the rest of the regiment.

This was part of an explicit rejection of liberal individualism; the punitive aspect of the ''fasces'', containing an ax, not being omitted. Furthermore, Fascism was to be a totalitarian, that is total experience, since it was impossible to a Fascist only in politics, and therefore overtly rejected liberalism's private and public spheres. Fascism was not a party but a way of life.Anthony Rhodes, ''Propaganda: The art of persuasion: World War II'', p69 1976, Chelsea House Publishers, New York The corporatist state was offered as a unifying form of politics, as opposed to liberal democracy. Fascism and the state were identified, and everything was to be encompassed in the state.

Work was presented as a social duty, because Italy was greater than any individual purpose. Beehives were presented as a model of industry and harmony.

Furthermore, this unity would allow the entire nation to throw itself into support of military necessity. The sanctions imposed by the League of Nations when Italy attacked Ethiopia were used to unite the country against this "aggression."

Empire

Reviving the glories of the Roman Empire in modern Italy was a common theme. This called for the control of Mare Nostrum—'our sea', as the Mediterranean Sea was called in Rome. France, Britain, and other powers were denounced as having kept Italy immured.R. J. B. Bosworth, ''Mussolini's Italy'', p12 Concerted efforts were made to drum up enthusiasm for colonialism in the 1930s.

Besides its symbolic aspects, the ''fasces'' had been carried by the lictors of ancient Rome as a representation of authority. April 21, the anniversary of the founding of Rome, was proclaimed a fascist holiday, intended to replace the socialist Labour Day as a celebration of the Roman virtues of "work" and " discipline".Falasca-Zamponi, S. (2000), pp. 91-92 Rome's role in establishing Christianity as a universal religion was also exalted.

Architecture was used to supplement the Roman revival by juxtaposing modern monuments with ancient buildings, such as the creation of the Via dell'Impero.Dyson, S.L (2006). ''In pursuit of ancient pasts: a history of classical archaeology in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries''. pp. 177-178. In the city of Rome, archaeological -propagandist projects involving the clearing, isolation (often by deliberately destroying surrounding Medieval buildings) and restoration of key monuments such as the Ara Pacis and the Mausoleum of Augustus received strong support from the fascist regime. A major propaganda event was the opening of the "Augustan Exhibition of Romanitas" on 23 September 1937 to celebrate the two-thousandth anniversary of the birth of Augustus. Here the symbolic connection between Caesarean leadership of Augustus and Mussolini's dictatorship was stressed. At the exhibition entrance was inscribed a quote from Mussolini: "Italians, you must ensure that the glories of the past are surpassed by the triumphs of the future." Rome thus constituted a point of reference in fascism's dream of building an aggressive and forward-looking Italy of the future. After the successful military campaign against Ethiopia and the subsequent proclamation of the Italian Empire, regime propaganda depicted fascism now even overshadowing its Roman past.

Spazio vitale

''Spazio vitale'', living space (or vital space), was presented as needing conquest. It would strengthen the country by drawing off its surplus population, sending landless peasants and the unemployed to work the earth, buy Italian goods, and act as a garrison. Millions of Italians could live in Ethiopia, and exaggerated claims were made of its resources.

This would amend the situation after World War I, where fascists alleged that Italy's allies had cheated it of expansion into the former Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman empires.

Fertility

Even while arguing the population had to be drained off, propaganda urged greater fertility, deriding men who failed to produce children and women whose Parisian fashions did not fit them for bearing children.Piers Brendon, ''The Dark Valley: A Panorama of the 1930s'', p554-5 Slogans urged maternity as the female form of patriotism. Mussolini instructed the heads of fascist women's organizations to go home and tell the women that they needed many births. To help the "battle of births", assistance had to be given to mothers and newborns, and the founding of an organization to do so was trumpeted. Contraception was decried as producing medical problems.

Mussolini also called for a more rural Italy to increase births.

The "battles" to reclaim land and increase grain production, Mussolini trumpeted, had produced enough that Italy could hold ten million more.

Civilization

Fascist rhetoric portrayed the Second Italo-Ethiopian War, attack on Ethiopia as advancing the cause of civilization. Other European nations were called on to stand with Italy against alleged "savage cannibals" and "slave-holders".

This was backed up with one of their most impressive ceremonies, the ''Gold for the Fatherland'' initiative, which involved the donation of wedding rings and other forms of gold by Italian citizens in exchange for steel wristbands bearing the words ''"Gold for the Fatherland"''. Many Italians participated, and even Rachele Mussolini was known to have donated her wedding ring. The donated gold was then collected and used to fund the war effort.

Anti-Ethiopian

During the war, propaganda was spread about exaggerated Ethiopian atrocities, both abuse of prisoners and misuse of the Red Cross symbol on military installations.

Economics

A series of calculated lies was propagated to win support for the Ethiopian venture by claiming that Italy was self-sufficient in food and enough oil had been stock-piled.

Bolshevism

Socialism was resisted, particularly in its internationalist forms. Socialist forces were denounced as a "Russian army." An editorialist, afraid that Fascist violence would repulse women, warned them that the killings were necessary to save Italy from the "Bolshevist beast."

In his first speech as a deputy, he proclaimed that no dealings were possible between Communism and Fascism, even while he proclaimed his willingness to work with other groups.

The Spanish Civil War was presented as a crusade against Communism.

Foreign culture

The influx of foreign culture was attacked. " Americanism" was the object of an organized propaganda campaign that attacked as a "grease stain which is spreading through the whole of European life."Denis Mack Smith, ''Mussolini's Roman Empire'', p. 28 French and Russian novels, and H. G. Wells