The prime minister of Canada (french: premier ministre du Canada, link=no) is the
head of government
The head of government is the highest or the second-highest official in the executive branch of a sovereign state, a federated state, or a self-governing colony, autonomous region, or other government who often presides over a cabinet, a ...
of
Canada
Canada is a country in North America. Its ten provinces and three territories extend from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean and northward into the Arctic Ocean, covering over , making it the world's second-largest country by to ...
. Under the
Westminster system, the prime minister governs with the
confidence of a majority the elected
House of Commons; as such, the prime minister typically sits as a
member of Parliament
A member of parliament (MP) is the representative in parliament of the people who live in their electoral district. In many countries with bicameral parliaments, this term refers only to members of the lower house since upper house members o ...
(MP) and leads the largest party or a coalition of parties. As
first minister
A first minister is any of a variety of leaders of government cabinets. The term literally has the same meaning as "prime minister" but is typically chosen to distinguish the office-holder from a superior prime minister. Currently the title of '' ...
, the prime minister selects ministers to form the
Cabinet
Cabinet or The Cabinet may refer to:
Furniture
* Cabinetry, a box-shaped piece of furniture with doors and/or drawers
* Display cabinet, a piece of furniture with one or more transparent glass sheets or transparent polycarbonate sheets
* Filin ...
, and serves as its chair. Constitutionally,
the Crown
The Crown is the state in all its aspects within the jurisprudence of the Commonwealth realms and their subdivisions (such as the Crown Dependencies, overseas territories, provinces, or states). Legally ill-defined, the term has differ ...
exercises
executive power on the
advice of the Cabinet, which is collectively
responsible to the House of Commons.
Justin Trudeau
Justin Pierre James Trudeau ( , ; born December 25, 1971) is a Canadian politician who is the 23rd and current prime minister of Canada. He has served as the prime minister of Canada since 2015 and as the leader of the Liberal Party since ...
is the
23rd and current prime minister of Canada. He took office on November 4, 2015, following the
2015 federal election where his
Liberal Party won a majority of seats and was invited to form the
29th Canadian Ministry
The Twenty-Ninth Canadian Ministry is the Cabinet of Canada, Cabinet, chaired by Prime Minister of Canada, Prime Minister Justin Trudeau, that began governing Canada shortly before the opening of the 42nd Parliament of Canada, 42nd Parliament. ...
. Trudeau was subsequently re-elected following the
2019 and
2021 elections with a minority of seats.
Not outlined in any constitutional document, the office exists only per long-established
convention (originating in Canada's former colonial power, the United Kingdom) that stipulates the monarch's representative, the governor general, must select as prime minister the person most likely to command the
confidence of the elected
House of Commons; this individual is typically the leader of the
political party
A political party is an organization that coordinates candidates to compete in a particular country's elections. It is common for the members of a party to hold similar ideas about politics, and parties may promote specific ideological or p ...
that holds the largest number of seats in that chamber.
Canadian prime ministers are appointed to the
Privy Council and
styled as
the Right Honourable
''The Right Honourable'' ( abbreviation: ''Rt Hon.'' or variations) is an honorific style traditionally applied to certain persons and collective bodies in the United Kingdom, the former British Empire and the Commonwealth of Nations. The ter ...
(french: Le très honorable, link=no), a privilege maintained for life.
The prime minister is supported by the
Prime Minister's Office and heads the
Privy Council Office. The prime minister also effectively appoints individuals to the
Senate of Canada and to the
Supreme Court of Canada
The Supreme Court of Canada (SCC; french: Cour suprême du Canada, CSC) is the Supreme court, highest court in the Court system of Canada, judicial system of Canada. It comprises List of Justices of the Supreme Court of Canada, nine justices, wh ...
and other
federal courts, along with choosing the leaders and boards, as required under law, of various
Crown corporations. Under the ''
Constitution Act, 1867'', government power is vested in the
monarch
A monarch is a head of stateWebster's II New College DictionarMonarch Houghton Mifflin. Boston. 2001. p. 707. Life tenure, for life or until abdication, and therefore the head of state of a monarchy. A monarch may exercise the highest authority ...
(who is the
head of state
A head of state (or chief of state) is the public persona who officially embodies a state Foakes, pp. 110–11 " he head of statebeing an embodiment of the State itself or representatitve of its international persona." in its unity and ...
), but in practice the role of the monarch—or their representative, the
governor general
Governor-general (plural ''governors-general''), or governor general (plural ''governors general''), is the title of an office-holder. In the context of governors-general and former British colonies, governors-general are appointed as viceroy ...
(or the
administrator
Administrator or admin may refer to:
Job roles Computing and internet
* Database administrator, a person who is responsible for the environmental aspects of a database
* Forum administrator, one who oversees discussions on an Internet forum
* N ...
)—is largely ceremonial and only exercised on the advice of a Cabinet minister. The prime minister also provides advice to the monarch of Canada for the selection of the governor general.
Origin of the office
The position of prime minister is not outlined in any Canadian constitutional document and is mentioned only in passing in the ''
Constitution Act, 1982'', and the ''
Letters Patent, 1947
The ''Letters Patent, 1947'' (more formally, the Letters Patent Constituting the Office of Governor General and Commander-in-Chief of Canada) are letters patent signed by George VI as King of Canada which reconstituted the office of Governor Ge ...
'' issued by King
George VI
George VI (Albert Frederick Arthur George; 14 December 1895 – 6 February 1952) was King of the United Kingdom and the Dominions of the British Commonwealth from 11 December 1936 until his death in 1952. He was also the last Emperor of I ...
. The office and its functions are instead governed by constitutional conventions and modelled on the
same office in the United Kingdom.
Qualifications and selection
The prime minister, along with the other ministers in Cabinet, is appointed by the governor general on behalf of the monarch.
However, by the conventions of
responsible government, designed to maintain administrative stability, the governor general will call to form a government the individual most likely to receive the support, or confidence, of a majority of the directly elected members of the
House of Commons; as a practical matter, this is often the leader of a party whose members form a majority, or a very large plurality, of the House of Commons.
While there is no legal requirement for prime ministers to be MPs themselves, for practical and political reasons the prime minister is expected to win a seat very promptly. However, in rare circumstances individuals who are not sitting members of the House of Commons have been appointed to the position of prime minister. Two former prime ministers—
John Joseph Caldwell Abbott and
Mackenzie Bowell
Sir Mackenzie Bowell (; December 27, 1823 – December 10, 1917) was a Canadian newspaper publisher and politician, who served as the fifth prime minister of Canada, in office from 1894 to 1896.
Bowell was born in Rickinghall, Suffolk, ...
—served in the 1890s while members of the
Senate.
Both, in their roles as
Government Leader in the Senate, succeeded prime ministers who had died in office—
John A. Macdonald in 1891 and
John Sparrow David Thompson in 1894.
Prime ministers who are not MPs upon their appointment (or who lose their seats while in office) have since been expected to seek election to the House of Commons as soon as possible. For example,
William Lyon Mackenzie King, after losing his seat in the
1925 federal election (that his party won), briefly governed without a seat in the House of Commons before winning a by-election a few weeks later. Similarly,
John Turner replaced
Pierre Trudeau as leader of the Liberal Party in 1984 and subsequently was appointed prime minister while not holding a seat in the House of Commons; Turner won a riding in the next election but the Liberal Party was swept from power.
When a prime minister loses their seat in the legislature, or should a new prime minister be appointed without holding a seat, the typical process that follows is that a member in the governing political party will resign to allow the prime minister to run in the resulting by-election.
[ A safe seat is usually chosen; while the Liberal and Conservative parties generally observed a practice of not running a candidate against another party's new leader in the by-election, the New Democratic Party and smaller political parties typically do not follow the same practice. However, if the governing party selects a new leader shortly before an election is due, and that new leader is not a member of the legislature, they will normally await the upcoming election before running for a seat in Parliament.
]
Term of office
The prime minister serves ''at Majesty's pleasure
AT or at may refer to:
Geography Austria
* Austria (ISO 2-letter country code)
* .at, Internet country code top-level domain
United States
* Atchison County, Kansas (county code)
* The Appalachian Trail (A.T.), a 2,180+ mile long mountaino ...
'', meaning the post does not have a fixed term, and once appointed and sworn in by the governor general, the prime minister remains in office until they resign, are dismissed, or die.
While the lifespan of a parliament is constitutionally limited to five years, a 2007 amendment to the ''Canada Elections Act'', Section 56.1(2) limited the term of a majority government to four years, with election day being set as the third Monday in October of the fourth calendar year after the previous polling date. The governor general may still, on the advice of the prime minister, dissolve parliament and issue the writs of election
A writ of election is a writ issued ordering the holding of an election. In Commonwealth countries writs are the usual mechanism by which general elections are called and are issued by the head of state or their representative. In the Unite ...
prior to the date mandated by the constitution or ''Canada Elections Act''; the King–Byng Affair was the only time since Confederation
A confederation (also known as a confederacy or league) is a union of sovereign groups or states united for purposes of common action. Usually created by a treaty, confederations of states tend to be established for dealing with critical iss ...
that the governor general refused the prime minister's request for a general vote.
Following parliamentary dissolution, the prime minister must run in the resulting general election to maintain a seat in the House of Commons. Should the prime minister's party subsequently win a majority of seats in the House of Commons, it is unnecessary to re-appoint the prime minister or for the prime minister to retake the oath of office. If, however, an opposition party wins a majority of seats, the prime minister may resign or be dismissed by the governor general. Should the prime minister's party achieve a minority while an opposition party wins a plurality (i.e., more seats than any other party but less than a majority), the prime minister can attempt to maintain the confidence of the House by forming a coalition
A coalition is a group formed when two or more people or groups temporarily work together to achieve a common goal. The term is most frequently used to denote a formation of power in political or economical spaces.
Formation
According to ''A Gui ...
with other minority parties, which was last entertained in 1925 or by entering into a confidence-and-supply agreement.
Role and authority
Because the prime minister is in practice the most politically powerful member of the Canadian government, they are sometimes erroneously referred to as Canada's head of state
A head of state (or chief of state) is the public persona who officially embodies a state Foakes, pp. 110–11 " he head of statebeing an embodiment of the State itself or representatitve of its international persona." in its unity and ...
, when, in fact, that role belongs to the Canadian monarch, represented by the governor general. The prime minister is, instead, the head of government
The head of government is the highest or the second-highest official in the executive branch of a sovereign state, a federated state, or a self-governing colony, autonomous region, or other government who often presides over a cabinet, a ...
and is responsible for advising the Crown on how to exercise much of the royal prerogative
The royal prerogative is a body of customary authority, privilege and immunity, recognized in common law and, sometimes, in civil law jurisdictions possessing a monarchy, as belonging to the sovereign and which have become widely vested in th ...
and its executive powers, which are governed by the constitution and its conventions. However, the function of the prime minister has evolved with increasing power. Today, per the doctrines of constitutional monarchy
A constitutional monarchy, parliamentary monarchy, or democratic monarchy is a form of monarchy in which the monarch exercises their authority in accordance with a constitution and is not alone in decision making. Constitutional monarchies dif ...
, the advice given by the prime minister is ordinarily binding, meaning the prime minister effectively carries out those duties ascribed to the sovereign or governor general, leaving the latter to act in predominantly ceremonial fashions. As such, the prime minister, supported by the Office of the Prime Minister (PMO), controls the appointments of many key figures in Canada's system of governance, including the governor general, the Cabinet, justices of the Supreme Court, senators, heads of Crown corporations, ambassadors and high commissioners, the provincial lieutenant governors, and approximately 3,100 other positions. Further, the prime minister plays a prominent role in the legislative process—with the majority of bills put before Parliament originating in the Cabinet—and the leadership of the Canadian Armed Forces.
Pierre Trudeau is credited with, throughout his tenure as prime minister between 1968 and 1984, consolidating power in the PMO, which is itself filled by political and administrative staff selected at the prime minister's discretion and unaccountable to Parliament. At the end of the 20th century and into the 21st, analysts—such as Jeffrey Simpson, Donald Savoie, Andrew Coyne, and John Gomery—argued that both Parliament and the Cabinet had become eclipsed by prime ministerial power; Savoie wrote: "The Canadian prime minister has little in the way of institutional check, at least inside government, to inhibit his ability to have his way." Indeed, the position has been described as undergoing a "presidentialization",[ to the point that its incumbents publicly outshine the actual head of state (and prime minister's spouses are sometimes referred to as ''First Lady of Canada''). Former governor general Adrienne Clarkson alluded to what she saw as "an unspoken rivalry" that had developed between the prime minister and the Crown. It has been theorized that such is the case in Canada as its Parliament is less influential on the executive than in other countries with Westminster parliamentary systems; particularly, Canada has fewer MPs, a higher turnover rate of MPs after each election, and a US-style system for selecting political party leaders, leaving them accountable to the party membership rather than caucus (as is the case in the UK).
There do exist checks on the prime minister's power: the House of Commons may revoke its confidence in an incumbent prime minister and Cabinet or caucus revolts can quickly bring down a serving premier and even mere threats of such action can persuade or compel a prime minister to resign his post, as happened with Jean Chrétien. The ''Reform Act, 2014'', codifies the process by which a caucus may trigger a party leadership review and, if necessary, chose an interim leader, thereby making a prime minister more accountable to the MPs in his or her party. Caucuses may choose to follow these rules, though the decision would be made by recorded vote, thereby subjecting the party's choice to public scrutiny.
The Senate may delay or impede legislation put forward by the Cabinet, such as when Brian Mulroney's bill creating the Goods and Services Tax (GST) came before the Senate, and given Canada's federal nature, the jurisdiction of the federal government is limited to areas prescribed by the constitution. Further, as executive power is constitutionally vested in the monarch, meaning the royal prerogative belongs to the Crown and not to any of its ministers,] the sovereign's supremacy over the prime minister in the constitutional order is thus seen as a "rebuff to the pretensions of the elected: As it has been said, when the prime minister bows before the queen, he bows before us he Canadian people" Either the sovereign or his or her governor general may therefore oppose the prime minister's will in extreme, crisis situations. Near the end of her time as governor general, Adrienne Clarkson stated: "My constitutional role has lain in what are called 'reserve powers': making sure that there is a prime minister and a government in place, and exercising the right 'to encourage, to advise, and to warn' ..Without really revealing any secrets, I can tell you that I have done all three."
Privileges
Two official residence
An official residence is the House, residence of a head of state, head of government, governor, Clergy, religious leader, leaders of international organizations, or other senior figure. It may be the same place where they conduct their work-relate ...
s are provided to the prime minister—24 Sussex Drive
24 Sussex Drive, originally called ''Gorffwysfa'' and usually referred to simply as 24 Sussex, is the official residence of the prime minister of Canada, located in the New Edinburgh neighbourhood of Ottawa, Ontario. Built between 1866 and 1868 by ...
in Ottawa and Harrington Lake
Harrington Lake (french: La résidence du lac Mousseau) is the summer residence and all-season retreat of the prime minister of Canada, and also the name of the land which surrounds it. The farm that surrounded most of the lake was the property ...
, a country retreat in Gatineau Park
Gatineau Park (french: Parc de la Gatineau) is a federal park located in the Outaouais region of Quebec, Canada. Administered by the National Capital Commission as part of the National Capital Region, Gatineau Park is a wedge of land extendin ...
—as well an office in the Office of the Prime Minister and Privy Council building (formerly known as Langevin Block), across from Parliament Hill. For transportation, the prime minister is afforded an armoured car (a car allowance of $2,000 per year) and shared use of two official aircraft—a CC-150 Polaris
The Airbus CC-150 Polaris is the designation for the civilian Airbus A310-300s which have been converted into multi-purpose, long-range jet aircraft for passenger, freight or medical transport and mid-air refueling for the Royal Canadian Air ...
for international flights and a Challenger 601
The Bombardier Challenger 600 series is a family of business jets developed by Canadair after a Bill Lear concept, and then produced from 1986 by its new owner, Bombardier Aerospace.
At the end of 1975, Canadair began funding the development ...
for domestic trips. The Royal Canadian Mounted Police
The Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP; french: Gendarmerie royale du Canada; french: GRC, label=none), commonly known in English as the Mounties (and colloquially in French as ) is the federal and national police service of Canada. As poli ...
also furnish constant personal security for the prime minister and their family. All of the aforementioned is provided through budgets approved by Parliament, as is the prime minister's total annual compensation of $357,800 (consisting of an MP's salary of $178,900 and the prime minister's salary of $178,900).
Serving or former prime ministers are accorded a state funeral, wherein their casket lies in state in the Centre Block of Parliament Hill. Only Bowell and the Viscount Bennett
Richard Bedford Bennett, 1st Viscount Bennett, (July 3, 1870 – June 26, 1947), was a Canadian lawyer, businessman, philanthropist, and politician who served as the 11th prime minister of Canada from 1930 to 1935.
Bennett was born in ...
were given private funerals, Bennett also being the only former prime minister of Canada to die and be buried outside the country and Bowell the only whose funeral was not attended by politicians. John Thompson also died outside Canada, at Windsor Castle, where Queen Victoria
Victoria (Alexandrina Victoria; 24 May 1819 – 22 January 1901) was Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland from 20 June 1837 until her death in 1901. Her reign of 63 years and 216 days was longer than that of any previ ...
permitted his lying-in-state before his body was returned to Canada for a state funeral in Halifax.
Prior to 1919, it was traditional for the monarch to bestow a knighthood
A knight is a person granted an honorary title of knighthood by a head of state (including the Pope) or representative for service to the monarch, the church or the country, especially in a military capacity. Knighthood finds origins in the ...
on newly appointed Canadian prime ministers. Accordingly, several carried the prefix ''Sir'' before their name; of the first eight premiers of Canada, only Alexander Mackenzie refused the honour of a knighthood from Queen Victoria. Following the 1919 Nickle Resolution The Canadian titles debate originated with the presentation to the House of Commons of Canada of the Nickle Resolution in 1917. This resolution marked the earliest attempt to establish a Government of Canada policy requesting the sovereign, in the ...
, however, the House of Commons motioned that it should be against the policy of the Canadian Sovereign (and the Canadian government advising the Monarch when such honours are not within the Monarch's personal gift) to bestow aristocratic or chivalric
Chivalry, or the chivalric code, is an informal and varying code of conduct developed in Europe between 1170 and 1220. It was associated with the medieval Christian institution of knighthood; knights' and gentlemen's behaviours were governed ...
titles to Canadians. The Crown in right of Canada (but not the Crown in right of the United Kingdom, which has periodically bestowed such Imperial honours on such citizens) has since adopted this policy generally, such that the last prime minister to be knighted near appointment was Robert Borden, who was the prime minister at the time the Nickle Resolution was debated in the House of Commons (and was knighted before the resolution). Still, Bennett was, in 1941, six years after he stepped down as prime minister, elevated to the peerage of the United Kingdom by King George VI as Viscount Bennett, of Mickleham in the County of Surrey and of Calgary and Hopewell in Canada. No prime minister has since been titled.
The Canadian Heraldic Authority (CHA) grants former prime ministers an augmentation of honour on the coat of arms
A coat of arms is a heraldic visual design on an escutcheon (i.e., shield), surcoat, or tabard (the latter two being outer garments). The coat of arms on an escutcheon forms the central element of the full heraldic achievement, which in its ...
of those who apply for them. The heraldic badge, referred to by the CHA as the ''mark of the Prime Ministership of Canada'', consists of four red maple leaves joined at the stem on a white field (''Argent four maple leaves conjoined in cross at the stem Gules''); the augmentation is usually a canton
Canton may refer to:
Administrative division terminology
* Canton (administrative division), territorial/administrative division in some countries, notably Switzerland
* Township (Canada), known as ''canton'' in Canadian French
Arts and ente ...
or centred in the chief
Chief may refer to:
Title or rank
Military and law enforcement
* Chief master sergeant, the ninth, and highest, enlisted rank in the U.S. Air Force and U.S. Space Force
* Chief of police, the head of a police department
* Chief of the bo ...
. Joe Clark, Pierre Trudeau, John Turner, Brian Mulroney, Kim Campbell
Avril Phaedra Douglas "Kim" Campbell (born March 10, 1947) is a Canadian politician, diplomat, lawyer, and writer who served as the 19th prime minister of Canada from June 25 to November 4, 1993. Campbell is the first and so far only female ...
, Jean Chrétien and Paul Martin were granted arms with the augmentation.
Style of address
Canada continues the Westminster tradition of using the title ''Prime Minister'' when one is speaking to the federal head of government directly; the Department of Canadian Heritage advises that it is incorrect to use the term ''Mr. Prime Minister''. The written form of address for the prime minister should use his or her full parliamentary title: ''The Right Honourable ame post-nominal_letters">/nowiki>post-nominal_letters.html" ;"title="post-nominal_letters.html" ;"title="/nowiki>post-nominal letters">/nowiki>post-nominal letters">post-nominal_letters.html" ;"title="/nowiki>post-nominal letters">/nowiki>post-nominal letters/nowiki>, Prime Minister of Canada''. However, while in the House of Commons during Question Period, other members of parliament may address the prime minister as ''the Right Honourable Member for [prime minister's Electoral district (Canada), riding]'' or simply ''the Right Honourable Prime Minister''. Former prime ministers retain the prefix ''the Right Honourable'' for the remainder of their lives; should they remain sitting MPs, they may be referred as ''the Right Honourable Member for riding.html" ;"title="Electoral_district_(Canada).html" ;"title="ember's riding">Electoral_district_(Canada).html"_;"title="ember's_Electoral_district_(Canada)">riding/nowiki>'',_by_their_Ministry_(government_department).html" ;"title="Electoral district (Canada)">riding">Electoral_district_(Canada).html" ;"title="ember's riding/nowiki>'',_by_their_Ministry_(government_department)">portfolio_title_(if_appointed_to_one),_as_in_''the_Right_Honourable_Minister_of_National_Defence'',_or_should_they_become_opposition_leader,_as_''the_Right_Honourable_Leader_of_the_Opposition''.
In_the_decades_following_Confederation,_it_was_common_practice_to_refer_to_the_prime_minister_as_''Premier_of_Canada'',_a_custom_that_continued_until_the_ riding/nowiki>'',_by_their_Ministry_(government_department)">portfolio_title_(if_appointed_to_one),_as_in_''the_Right_Honourable_Minister_of_National_Defence'',_or_should_they_become_opposition_leader,_as_''the_Right_Honourable_Leader_of_the_Opposition''.
In_the_decades_following_Confederation,_it_was_common_practice_to_refer_to_the_prime_minister_as_''Premier_of_Canada'',_a_custom_that_continued_until_the_World_War_I">First_World_War_
World_War_I_(28_July_1914__11_November_1918),_often_abbreviated_as_WWI,_was_List_of_wars_and_anthropogenic_disasters_by_death_toll,_one_of_the_deadliest_global_conflicts_in_history._Belligerents_included_much_of_Europe,_the_Russian_Empire,__...
,_around_the_time_of_Robert_Borden's_premiership._While_contemporary_sources_will_still_speak_of_early_prime_ministers_of_Canada_as_''premier'',_the_modern_practice_is_such_that_the_federal_head_of_government_is_known_almost_exclusively_as_the_''prime_minister'',_while_the_Premier_(Canada).html" ;"title="World_War_I.html" "title="Electoral district (Canada)">riding/nowiki>'', by their Ministry (government department)">portfolio title (if appointed to one), as in ''the Right Honourable Minister of National Defence'', or should they become opposition leader, as ''the Right Honourable Leader of the Opposition''.
In the decades following Confederation, it was common practice to refer to the prime minister as ''Premier of Canada'', a custom that continued until the World War I">First World War
World War I (28 July 1914 11 November 1918), often abbreviated as WWI, was List of wars and anthropogenic disasters by death toll, one of the deadliest global conflicts in history. Belligerents included much of Europe, the Russian Empire, ...
, around the time of Robert Borden's premiership. While contemporary sources will still speak of early prime ministers of Canada as ''premier'', the modern practice is such that the federal head of government is known almost exclusively as the ''prime minister'', while the Premier (Canada)">provincial and territorial heads of government are termed ''premiers'' (in French, premiers are addressed as , literally translated as ''prime minister of [province]'').
The prime minister–designate of Canada refers to the person who has been designated as the future prime minister by the
, after either the individual's politicial party won a general election or proposing to form either a
. The term does not apply to incumbent prime ministers.
After exiting office, former prime ministers of Canada have engaged in various pursuits. Some remained in politics: Bowell continued as a senator,
returned to the House of Commons as a backbench MP, and Bennett moved to the United Kingdom after being elevated to the
. A number were leaders of the
: John A. Macdonald,
, Mackenzie King, and Pierre Trudeau, all before being re-appointed as prime minister (Mackenzie King twice); Alexander Mackenzie and
and John Turner, each before they returned to private business. Meighen was also appointed to the Senate following his second period as prime minister, but resigned his seat to seek re-election and moved to private enterprise after failing to win a riding.
; Joe Clark and Kim Campbell, who became university professors, Clark also consultant and Campbell working in international diplomacy and as the director of private companies and chairperson of interest groups; while Pierre Trudeau and Jean Chrétien returned to legal practice.
.