Causes
There are differing estimates of how much plastic waste has been produced in the last century. By one estimate, one billion tons of plastic waste have been discarded since the 1950s. Others estimate a cumulative human production of 8.3 billion tons of plastic, of which 6.3 billion tons is waste, with only 9% getting recycled. It is estimated that this waste is made up of 81% polymer resin, 13% polymer fibres and 32% additives. In 2018 more than 343 million tonnes of plastic waste were generated, 90% of which was composed of post-consumer plastic waste (industrial, agricultural, commercial and municipal plastic waste). The rest was pre-consumer waste from resin production and manufacturing of plastic products (e.g. materials rejected due to unsuitable colour, hardness, or processing characteristics). A large proportion of post-consumer plastic waste consists of plastic packaging. In the United States plastic packaging has been estimated to make up 5% of MSW. This packaging includes plastic bottles, pots, tubs and trays, plastic films shopping bags, rubbish bags, bubble wrap, and plastic or stretch wrap and plastic foams e.g. expanded polystyrene (EPS). Plastic waste is generated in sectors including agriculture (e.g. irrigation pipes, greenhouse covers, fencing, pellets, mulch; construction (e.g. pipes, paints, flooring and roofing, insulants and sealants); transport (e.g. abraded tyres, road surfaces and road markings); electronic and electric equipment (e-waste); and pharmaceuticals and healthcare. The total amounts of plastic waste generated by these sectors is uncertain. Several studies have attempted to quantify plastic leakage into the environment at both national and global levels which have highlight the difficulty of determining the sources and amounts of all plastic leakage. One global study has estimated that between 60 and 99 million tonnes of mismanaged plastic waste were produced in 2015. Borrelle et al. 2020 has estimated that 19–23 million tonnes of plastic waste entered aquatic ecosystems in 2016. while the Pew Charitable Trusts and SYSTEMIQ (2020) have estimated that 9–14 million tonnes of plastic waste ended up in the oceans the same year. Despite global efforts to reduce the generation of plastic waste, losses to the environment are predicted to increase. Modelling indicates that, without major interventions, between 23 and 37 million tonnes per year of plastic waste could enter the oceans by 2040 and between 155 and 265 million tonnes per year could be discharged into the environment by 2060. Under a business as usual scenario, such increases would likely be attributable to a continuing rise in production of plastic products, driven by consumer demand, accompanied by insufficient improvements in waste management. As the plastic waste released into the environment already has a significant impact on ecosystems, an increase of this magnitude could have dramatic consequences. The trade in plastic waste has been identified as "a main culprit" of marine litter. Countries importing the waste plastics often lack the capacity to process all the material. As a result, the United Nations has imposed a ban on waste plastic trade unless it meets certain criteria.Types of plastic debris
There are three major forms of plastic that contribute to plastic pollution:Microdebris
Microdebris are plastic pieces between 2 mm and 5 mm in size. Plastic debris that starts off as meso- or macrodebris can become microdebris through degradation and collisions that break it down into smaller pieces. Microdebris is more commonly referred to asAmounts, locations, tracking, and correlations of the microdebris
A 2004 study by Richard Thompson from the University of Plymouth, UK, found a great amount of microdebris on beaches and in waters in Europe, the Americas, Australia, Africa, and Antarctica. Thompson and his associates found that plastic pellets from both domestic and industrial sources were being broken down into much smaller plastic pieces, some having a diameter smaller than human hair. If not ingested, this microdebris floats instead of being absorbed into the marine environment. Thompson predicts there may be 300,000 plastic items per square kilometre of sea surface and 100,000 plastic particles per square kilometre of seabed. International Pellet Watch collected samples of polythene pellets from 30 beaches in 17 countries which were analysed for organic micro-pollutants. It was found that pellets found on beaches in the US, Vietnam and southern Africa contained compounds from pesticides suggesting a high use of pesticides in the areas. In 2020 scientists created what may be the first scientific estimate of how much microplastic currently resides in Earth's seafloor, after investigating six areas of ~3 km depth ~300 km off the Australian coast. They found the highly variable microplastic counts to be proportionate to plastic on the surface and the angle of the seafloor slope. By averaging the microplastic mass per cm3, they estimated that Earth's seafloor contains ~14 million tons of microplastic – about double the amount they estimated based on data from earlier studies – despite calling both estimates "conservative" as coastal areas are known to contain much more microplastic. These estimates are about one to two times the amount of plastic thought – per Jambeck et al., 2015 – to currently enter the oceans annually.Macrodebris
Plastic debris is categorized as macrodebris when it is larger than 20 mm. These include items such as plastic grocery bags. Macrodebris are often found in ocean waters, and can have a serious impact on the native organisms. Fishing nets have been prime pollutants. Even after they have been abandoned, they continue to trap marine organisms and other plastic debris. Eventually, these abandoned nets become too difficult to remove from the water because they become too heavy, having grown in weight up to 6 tonnes.Plastic production
9.2 billion tonnes of plastic are estimated to have been made between 1950 and 2017. More than half this plastic has been produced since 2004. Of all the plastic discarded so far, 14% has been incinerated and less than 10% has been recycled.Decomposition of plastics
Plastics themselves contribute to approximately 10% of discarded waste. Many kinds of plastics exist depending on their precursors and the method for their polymerization. Depending on their chemical composition, plastics and resins have varying properties related to contaminantPersistent organic pollutants
It was estimated that global production of plastics is approximately 250 mt/yr. Their abundance has been found to transport persistent organic pollutants, also known as POPs. These pollutants have been linked to an increased distribution of algae associated with red tides.Commercial pollutants
In 2019, the group Break Free From Plastic organized over 70,000 volunteers in 51 countries to collect and identify plastic waste. These volunteers collected over "59,000 plastic bags, 53,000 sachets and 29,000 plastic bottles," as reported by ''The Guardian''. Nearly half of the items were identifiable by consumer brands. The most common brands were Coca-Cola, Nestlé, and Pepsico. According to the global campaign coordinator for the project Emma Priestland in 2020, the only way to solve the problem is stopping production of single use plastic and using reusable products instead. China is the biggest consumer of single-use plastics. Coca-Cola answered that "more than 20% of our portfolio comes in refillable or fountain packaging", they are decreasing the amount of plastic in secondary packaging. Nestlé responded that 87% of their packaging and 66% of their plastic packaging can be reused or recycled and by 2025 they want to make it 100%. By that year they want to reduce the consumption of virgin plastic by one third. Pepsico responded that they want to decrease "virgin plastic in our beverage business by 35% by 2025” and also expanding reuse and refill practices what should prevent 67 billion single use bottles by 2025.Major plastic waste generator and polluter countries
Plastic waste generation
The United States is the world leader in generating plastic waste, producing an annual 42 million metric tons of plastic waste. Per capita generation of plastic waste in the United States is higher than in any other country, with the average American producing 130.09 kilograms of plastic waste per year. Other high-income countries, such as those of the EU-28 (annual per capita generation 58.56kg), also have a high per capita plastic waste generation rate. Some high-income countries, such as Japan (annual per capital generation 38.44kg), produce far less plastic waste per capita.Plastic pollution
The United States National Academy of Sciences estimated in 2022 that the worldwide entry of plastic into the ocean was 8 million metric tons of plastic per year. A 2021 study by The Ocean Cleanup estimated that rivers convey between 0.8 and 2.7 million metric tons of plastic into the ocean, and ranked these river's countries. The top ten were, from the most to the least: Philippines, India, Malaysia, China, Indonesia, Myanmar, Brazil, Vietnam, Bangladesh, and Thailand.Mismanaged plastic waste polluters
In 2018 approximately 513 million tonnes of plastics wind up in the oceans every year out of which the 83,1% is from the following 20 countries:Total plastic waste polluters
Around 275 million tonnes of plastic waste is generated each year around the world; between 4.8 million and 12.7 million tonnes is dumped into the sea. About 60% of the plastic waste in the ocean comes from the following top 5 countries. The table below list the top 20 plastic waste polluting countries in 2010 according to a study published by '' Science'', Jambeck ''et al'' (2015). All theEffects
Effects on the environment
The distribution of plastic debris is highly variable as a result of certain factors such as wind and ocean currents, coastline geography, urban areas, and trade routes. Human population in certain areas also plays a large role in this. Plastics are more likely to be found in enclosed regions such as the Caribbean. It serves as a means of distribution of organisms to remote coasts that are not their native environments. This could potentially increase the variability and dispersal of organisms in specific areas that are less biologically diverse. Plastics can also be used as vectors for chemical contaminants such as persistent organic pollutants and heavy metals. Plastic pollution has also greatly negatively affected our environment. "The pollution is significant and widespread, with plastic debris found on even the most remote coastal areas and in every marine habitat". This information tells us about how much of a consequential change plastic pollution has made on the ocean and even the coasts. In January 2022 a group of scientists defined a planetary boundary for "novel entities" (pollution, including plastic pollution) and found it has already been exceeded. According to co-author Patricia Villarubia-Gómez from the Stockholm Resilience Centre, "There has been a 50-fold increase in the production of chemicals since 1950. This is projected to triple again by 2050". There are at least 350,000 artificial chemicals in the world. They have mostly "negative effects onPlastic pollution as a cause of climate change
In 2019 a new report "Plastic and Climate" was published. According to the report, in 2019, production and incineration of plastic will contribute greenhouse gases in the equivalent of 850 million tonnes of carbon dioxide () to the atmosphere. In current trend, annual emissions from these sources will grow to 1.34 billion tonnes by 2030. By 2050 plastic could emit 56 billion tonnes of greenhouse gas emissions, as much as 14 percent of the earth's remaining carbon budget. By 2100 it will emit 260 billion tonnes, more than half of the carbon budget. Those are emission from production, transportation, incineration, but there are also releases ofEffects of plastic on land
Plastic pollution on land poses a threat to the plants and animals – including humans who are based on the land. Estimates of the amount of plastic concentration on land are between four and twenty three times that of the ocean. The amount of plastic poised on the land is greater and more concentrated than that in the water. Mismanaged plastic waste ranges from 60 percent in East Asia and Pacific to one percent in North America. The percentage of mismanaged plastic waste reaching the ocean annually and thus becoming plastic marine debris is between one third and one half the total mismanaged waste for that year. In 2021 a report conducted by the Food and Agriculture Organization stated that plastic is often used in agriculture. There is more plastic in the soil that in the oceans. The presence of plastic in the environment hurt ecosystems and human health and pose a threat to food safety.Effect on flooding
Plastic waste can clog storm drains, and such clogging can increase flood damage, particularly in urban areas. A buildup of plastic garbage at trash cans raises the water level upstream and may enhance the risk of urban flooding. For example, in Bangkok flood risk increases substantially because of plastic waste clogging the already overburdened sewer system.In tap water
A 2017 study found that 83% of tap water samples taken around the world contained plastic pollutants. This was the first study to focus on globalIn terrestrial ecosystems
Mismanaged plastic waste leads to plastic directly or indirectly entering terrestrial ecosystems.Li, P., Wang, X., Su, M., Zou, X., Duan, L., & Zhang, H. (2020). Characteristics of plastic pollution in the environment: A Review. Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, 107(4), 577–584. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00128-020-02820-1 There has been a significant increase of microplastic pollution due to the poor handling and disposal of plastic materials.Mbachu, O., Jenkins, G., Kaparaju, P., & Pratt, C. (2021). The rise of artificial soil carbon inputs: Reviewing microplastic pollution effects in the soil environment. Science of the Total Environment, 780, 146569. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.146569 In particular, plastic pollution in the form of microplastics now can be found extensively in soil. It enters the soil by settling on the surface and eventually making its way into subsoils.Chae, Y., & An, Y.-J. (2018). Current research trends on plastic pollution and ecological impacts on the soil ecosystem: A Review. Environmental Pollution, 240, 387–395. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2018.05.008 These microplastics find their way into plants and animals.Wei, F., Xu, C., Chen, C., Wang, Y., Lan, Y., Long, L., Xu, M., Wu, J., Shen, F., Zhang, Y., Xiao, Y., & Yang, G. (2022). Distribution of microplastics in the sludge of wastewater treatment plants in Chengdu, China. Chemosphere, 287, 132357. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2021.132357 Effluent and sludge of wastewater contain large amounts of plastics. Wastewater treatment plants don't have a treatment process to remove microplastics which results in plastics being transferred into water and soil when effluent and sludge are applied to land for agricultural purposes. Several researchers have found plastic microfibers that are released when fleece and other polyester textiles are cleaned in washing machines.Yang, J., Li, L., Li, R., Xu, L., Shen, Y., Li, S., Tu, C., Wu, L., Christie, P., & Luo, Y. (2021). Microplastics in an agricultural soil following repeated application of three types of sewage sludge: A field study. Environmental Pollution, 289, 117943. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2021.117943 These fibers can be transferred through effluent to land which pollutes soil environments. The increase in plastic and microplastic pollution in soils can cause adverse impacts on plants and microorganisms in the soil, which can in turn affect soil fertility. Microplastics affect soil ecosystems that are important for plant growth. Plants are important for the environment and ecosystems so the plastics are damaging to plants and organisms living in these ecosystems. Microplastics alter soil biophysical properties which affect the quality of the soil. This affects soil biological activity, biodiversity and plant health. Microplastics in the soil alter a plant's growth. It decreases seedling germination, affects the number of leaves, stem diameter and chlorophyll content in these plants. Microplastics in the soil are a risk not only to soil biodiversity but also food safety and human health. Soil biodiversity is important for plant growth in agricultural industries. Agricultural activities such as plastic mulching and application of municipal wastes contribute to the microplastic pollution in the soil. Human-modified soils are commonly used to improve crop productivity but the effects are more damaging than helpful. Plastics also release toxic chemicals into the environment and cause physical, chemical harm and biological damage to organisms. Ingestion of plastic doesn't only lead to death in animals through intestinal blockage but it can also travel up the food chain which affects humans.Effects of plastic on oceans and seabirds
Marine life is one of the most important when one is affected by plastic pollution. Plastic pollution puts animals' lives in danger and is in constant fear of extinction. Marine wildlife such as seabirds, whales, fish and turtles mistake plastic waste for prey; most then die of starvation as their stomachs become filled with plastic. They also suffer from lacerations, infections, reduced ability to swim, and internal injuries. This evidence tells us how damaged marine wildlife is being affected by plastic pollution, they bring up how many animals mistake plastic for prey and eat it without knowing. "Globally, 100,000 marine mammals die every year as a result of plastic pollution. This includes whales, dolphins, porpoises, seals and sea lions". This evidence tells us the statistics of how many marine mammals really are negatively affected enough to die from plastic pollution.Effects on freshwater ecosystems
Research into freshwater plastic pollution has been largely ignored over marine ecosystems, comprising only 13% of published papers on the topic. Plastics make their way into bodies of freshwater, underground aquifers, and moving freshwaters through runoff and erosion of mismanaged plastic waste (MMPW). In some areas, the direct waste disposal into rivers is a remaining factor of historical practices, and has only been somewhat limited by modern legislation. Rivers are the primary transport of plastics into marine ecosystems, sourcing potentially 80% of the plastic pollution in the oceans. Research on the top ten river catchments ranked by annual amount of MMPW showed that some rivers contribute as high as 88–95% of ocean-bound plastics, the highest being the Yangtze River into the East China Sea. Asian rivers contribute nearly 67% of plastic waste found in the ocean annually, largely influenced by the high density coastal populations all throughout the continent as well as relatively intense bouts of seasonal rainfall.Impacts on freshwater biodiversity
= Invertebrates
= A study analyzing ingestion of plastics across a variety of previously published experiments showed that out of the 206 species covered, the majority of papers documented ingestion in fish. This doesn't quite mean that fish ingest plastic more than other organisms, but instead highlights the underrepresentation of plastic effects in equally important organisms, like aquatic plants, amphibians and invertebrates. Despite this disparity, controlled experiments analyzing microplastic impact on aquatic plants like the algae ''Chlorella spp'' and common duckweed ''Lemna minor'' have yielded significant results. Between microplastics of polypropylene (PP) and polyvinyl chloride (PVC), PVC demonstrated greater toxicity to ''Chlorella pyrenoidosa'', overall negatively impacting their photosynthetic ability. This effect on photosynthesis is likely due to the 60% reduction of algal chlorophyll ''a'' associated with high PVC concentrations found in the same study. When analyzing the effect of polyethylene microbeads (origin: cosmetic exfoliants) on the aquatic macrophyte ''L. minor'', no effect on photosynthetic pigments & productivity was found, but root growth and root cell viability decreased. These results are concerning as plants and algae are integral to nutrient and gas cycling within an aquatic system, and have the capacity to create significant changes in water composition due to their sheer density. Crustaceans have also been analyzed for their response to plastic presence. There is proof that freshwater crustaceans, specifically European crabs and crayfish, suffer entanglement in polyamide ghost nets used in lake fishing. When exposed to plastic nanoparticles of polystyrene, '' Daphnia galeata'' (common water flea) experienced reduced survival within 48 hours as well as reproductive issues. Over a span of 5 days, the amount of pregnant Daphnia decreased by nearly 50%, and less than 20% of exposed embryos survived without any immediate repercussions. Other arthropods, like juvenile stages of insects are susceptible to similar plastic exposure as some spend part of their adolescence fully submerged in a freshwater resource. This similarity in lifestyle to other aquatic invertebrates indicates that insects may experience similar side effects of plastic exposure.= Vertebrates
= Plastic exposure in amphibians has mostly been studied in adolescent life stages, when the test subjects are still dependent on an aquatic environment where it can be easier to manipulate variables experimentally. Studies on a common South American freshwater frog, '' Physalaemus cuvieri'' indicated that plastics may have the potential to induce mutagenic and cytotoxic morphological changes. Much more research needs to be done on amphibian response to plastic pollution, especially since amphibians can serve as initial indicator species of environmental decline. Freshwater mammals and birds have long been known to have negative interactions with plastic pollution, often resulting in entanglement or suffocation/choking after ingesting. While inflammation within the gastrointestinal tract in both groups has been noted, unfortunately there is little to no data on the toxicological effects of plastic pollutants in these organisms. Fish have been studied the most regarding plastic pollution in freshwater organisms, with the majority of studies indicating evidence of plastic ingestion in wild-caught samples and lab specimens. There have been some attempts to look at lethality of plastics in a common freshwater model species, '' Danio rerio'', aka zebrafish. Increased mucus production and inflammation response in the ''D. rerio'' GI-tract was noted, but additionally, researchers noted a distinct shift in theEffects on humans
Compounds that are used in manufacturing pollute the environment by releasing chemicals into the air and water. Some compounds that are used in plastics, such as phthalates, bisphenol A (BRA), polybrominated diphenyl ether (PBDE), are under close statute and might be very hurtful. Even though these compounds are unsafe, they have been used in the manufacturing of food packaging, medical devices, flooring materials, bottles, perfumes, cosmetics and much more. Inhalation of microplastics (MPs) have been shown to be one of the major contributors to MP uptake in humans. MPs in the form of dust particles are circulated constantly through ventilation and air conditioning systems indoors. The large dosage of these compounds are hazardous to humans, destroying the endocrine system. BRA imitates the female's hormone called estrogen. PBD destroys and causes damage to thyroid hormones, which are vital hormone glands that play a major role in the metabolism, growth and development of the human body. MPs can also have a detrimental effect on male reproductive success. MPs such as BPA can interfere withClinical significance
Due to the pervasiveness of plastic products, most of the human population is constantly exposed to the chemical components of plastics. In the United States, 95% of adults have had detectable levels of BPA in their urine. Exposure to chemicals such as= Thyroid hormone axis
= Bisphenol A affects gene expression related to the thyroid hormone axis, which affects biological functions such as metabolism and development. BPA can decrease= Sex hormones
= BPA can disrupt normal, physiological levels of sex hormones. It does this by binding to globulins that normally bind to sex hormones such as androgens andReduction efforts
Efforts to reduce the use of plastics, to promote plastic recycling and to reduce mismanaged plastic waste or plastic pollution have occurred or are ongoing. The first scientific review in the professional academic literature about global plastic pollution in general found that the rational response to the "global threat" would be "reductions in consumption of virgin plastic materials, along with internationally coordinated strategies for waste management" – such as banning export of plastic waste unless it leads to better recycling – and describes the state of knowledge about "poorly reversible" impacts which are one of the rationales for its reduction. Some supermarkets charge their customers for plastic bags, and in some places more efficient reusable or biodegradable materials are being used in place of plastics. Some communities and businesses have put a ban on some commonly used plastic items, such as bottled water and plastic bags. Some non-governmental organizations have launched voluntary plastic reduction schemes like certificates that can be adapted by restaurants to be recognized as eco-friendly among customers. In January 2019 a "Global Alliance to End Plastic Waste" was created by companies in the plastics industry. The alliance aims to clean the environment from existing waste and increase recycling, but it does not mention reduction in plastic production as one of its targets. On 2 March 2022 in Nairobi, representatives of 175 countries pledged to create a legally binding agreement to end plastic pollution. The agreement should address the full lifecycle of plastic and propose alternatives including reusability. An Intergovernmental Negotiating Committee (INC) that should conceive the agreement by the end of the year 2024 was created. The agreement should facilitate the transition to a circular economy, which will reduce GHG emissions by 25%. Inger Andersen, executive director of UNEP called the decision "a triumph by planet earth over single-use plastics".Biodegradable and degradable plastics
The use of biodegradable plastics has many advantages and disadvantages. Biodegradables are biopolymers that degrade in industrial composters. Biodegradables do not degrade as efficiently in domestic composters, and during this slower process,Incineration
Up to 60% of used plastic medical equipment is incinerated rather than deposited in a landfill as a precautionary measure to lessen the transmission of disease. This has allowed for a large decrease in the amount of plastic waste that stems from medical equipment. At a large scale, plastics, paper, and other materials provides waste-to-energy plants with useful fuel. About 12% of total produced plastic has been incinerated. Many studies have been done concerning the gaseous emissions that result from the incineration process. Incinerated plastics release a number of toxins in the burning process, including Dioxins, Furans, Mercury andPolicy
Agencies such as the US Environmental Protection Agency and US Food and Drug Administration often do not assess the safety of new chemicals until after a negative side effect is shown. Once they suspect a chemical may be toxic, it is studied to determine the human reference dose, which is determined to be the lowest observable adverse effect level. During these studies, a high dose is tested to see if it causes any adverse health effects, and if it does not, lower doses are considered to be safe as well. This does not take into account the fact that with some chemicals found in plastics, such asVoluntary reduction efforts failing
Major plastic producers continue to lobby governments to refrain from imposing restrictions on plastic production and to advocate for voluntary corporate targets to reduce new plastic output. However, the world's top 10 plastic producers, including The Coca-Cola Company, Nestle SA and PepsiCo have been failing to meet even their own minimum targets for virgin plastic use. There have been several international covenants which address marine plastic pollution, such as the Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter 1972, the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships, 1973 and th= Legally binding plastics treaty
= Some academics and NGOs believe that a legally binding international treaty to deal with plastic pollution is necessary. They think this because plastic pollution is an international problem, moving between maritime borders, and also because they believe there needs to be a cap on plastic production. Lobbyists were hoping thaWaste import bans
Since around 2017, China, Turkey, Malaysia, Cambodia, and Thailand have banned certain waste imports. It has been suggested that such bans may increase automation and recycling, decreasing negative impacts on the environment. According to an analysis of global trade data by the nonprofit Basel Action Network, violations of the Basel Convention, active since January 1, 2021, have been rampant during 2021. The U.S., Canada, and the European Union have sent hundreds of millions of tons of plastic to countries with insufficient waste management infrastructure, where much of it is landfilled, burned, or littered into the environment.Circular economy policies
Laws related to recyclability, waste management, domestic materials recovery facilities, product composition, biodegradability and prevention of import/export of specific wastes may support prevention of plastic pollution. A study considers producer/manufacturer responsibility "a practical approach toward addressing the issue of plastic pollution", suggesting that "Existing and adopted policies, legislations, regulations, and initiatives at global, regional, and national level play a vital role". Standardization of products, especially of packaging which are, as of 2022, often composed of different materials (each and across products) that are hard or currently impossible to either separate or recycle together in general or in an automated way could support recyclability and recycling. For instance, there are systems that can theoretically distinguish between and sort 12 types of plastics such as PET using hyperspectral imaging and algorithms developed via machine learning while only an estimated 9% of the estimated 6.3 billion tonnes of plastic waste from the 1950s up to 2018 has been recycled (12% has been incinerated and the rest reportedly being "dumped in landfills or the natural environment").Collection, recycling and reduction
The two common forms of waste collection include curbside collection and the use of drop-off recycling centers. About 87 percent of the population in the United States (273 million people) have access to curbside and drop-off recycling centers. In curbside collection, which is available to about 63 percent of the United States population (193 million people), people place designated plastics in a special bin to be picked up by a public or private hauling company. Most curbside programs collect more than one type of plastic resin, usually both PETE and HDPE. At drop-off recycling centers, which are available to 68 percent of the United States population (213 million people), people take their recyclables to a centrally located facility. Once collected, the plastics are delivered to a materials recovery facility (MRF) or handler for sorting into single-resin streams to increase product value. The sorted plastics are then baled to reduce shipping costs to reclaimers. There are varying rates of recycling per type of plastic, and in 2017, the overall plastic recycling rate was approximately 8.4% in the United States. Approximately of plastics were recycled in the U.S. in 2017, while plastic were dumped in landfills the same year. Some plastics are recycled more than others; in 2017 about 31.2 percent of HDPE bottles and 29.1 percent of PET bottles and jars were recycled. Reusable packaging refers to packaging that is manufactured of durable materials and is specifically designed for multiple trips and extended life. There are zero-waste stores and refill shops for selected products as well as conventional supermarkets that enable refilling of selected plastics-packaged products or voluntarily sell products with no or more sustainable packaging. On 21 May 2019, a new service model called "Loop" to collect packaging from consumers and reuse it, began to function in the New York region, US, supported by multiple larger companies. Consumers drop packages in special shipping totes and then a pick up collect, clean, refill and return them. It has begun with several thousand households and aims to not only stop single use plastic, but to stop single use generally by recycling consumer product containers of various materials. Another effective strategy, that could be supported by policies, is eliminating the need for plastic bottles such as by using refillable e.g. steel bottles, and water carbonators, which may also prevent potential negative impacts on human health due to microplastics release. Reducing plastic waste could support recycling and is often taken together with recycling: the "3R" refer to Reduce, Reuse and Recycle.Ocean cleanup
The organization " The Ocean Cleanup" is trying to collect plastic waste from the oceans by nets. There are concerns from harm to some forms of sea organisms, especially neuston.Great Bubble Barrier
In the Netherlands, plastic litter from some rivers is collected by a bubble barrier, to prevent plastics from floating into the sea. This so-called 'Great Bubble Barrier’ catches plastics bigger than 1 mm. The bubble barrier is implemented in the River IJssel (2017) and in Amsterdam (2019) and will be implemented in Katwijk at the end of the river Rhine.Mapping and tracking
Our World In Data provides graphics about some analyses, including maps, to show sources of plastic pollution – including that of oceans in specific. Identifying largest sources of ocean plastics in high fidelity may help to discern causes, to measure progress and to develop effective countermeasures. A large fraction of ocean plastics may come from – also non-imported – plastic waste of coastal cities as well as from rivers (with top 1000 rivers estimated by one 2021 study to account for 80% of global annual emissions). These two sources may be interlinked. The Yangtze river into the East China Sea is identified by some studies that use sampling evidence as the highest plastic-emitting (sampled) river, in contrast to the beforementioned 2021 study that ranks it at place 64. Management interventions at the local level at coastal areas were found to be crucial to the global success of reducing plastic pollution. There is one global, interactive machine learning- and satellite monitoring-based, map of plastic waste sites which could help identify who and where mismanages plastic waste, dumping it into oceans.By country/region
Albania
In July 2018,Australia
It has been estimated that each year, Australia produces around 2.5m tonnes of plastic waste annually, of which about 84% ends up as landfill, and around 130,000 tonnes of plastic waste leaks into the environment. Six of the eight states and territories had by December 2021 committed to banning a range of plastics. The federal government's National Packaging Targets created the goal of phasing out the worst of single-use plastics by 2025, and under the ''National Plastics Plan 2021'', it has committed "to phase out loose fill and moulded polystyrene packaging by July 2022, and various other products by December 2022.Canada
In the year 2022 Canada announced a ban on producing and importing single use plastic from December 2022. The sale of those items will be banned from December 2023 and the export from 2025. The prime minister of CanadaChina
China is the biggest consumer of single-use plastics. In 2020European Union
In 2015 the European Union adopted a directive requiring a reduction in the consumption of single use plastic bags per person to 90 by 2019 and to 40 by 2025. In April 2019, the EU adopted a further directive banning almost all types of single use plastic, except bottles, from the beginning of the year 2021. On 3 July 2021, the EU Single-Use Plastics Directive (SUPD, EU 2019/904) went into effect in EU member states. The directive aims to reduce plastic pollution from single-use disposable plastics. It focuses on the 10 most commonly found disposable plastics at beaches, which make up 43% of marine litter (fishing gear another 27%). According to the SUP directive, there is a ban on: plastic cotton buds and balloon sticks; plastic plates, cutlery, stirrers and straws; Styrofoam drinks and food packaging (f.e. disposable cups, one-person meals); products made of oxo-degradable plastics, which degrade into microplastics. cigarette filters, drinking cups, wet wipes, sanitary towels and tampons receive a label indicating the product contains plastic, that it belongs in the trash, and that litter has negative effects on the environment. In December 2022 the EU took the first steps for banning the export of plastic waste to other countries.India
The government of India decided to ban single use plastics and take a number of measures to recycle and reuse plastic, from 2 October 2019 The Ministry of Drinking Water and Sanitation, Government of India, has requested various governmental departments to avoid the use of plastic bottles to provide drinking water during governmental meetings, etc., and to instead make arrangements for providing drinking water that do not generate plastic waste. The state of Sikkim has restricted the usage of plastic water bottles (in government functions and meetings) and styrofoam products. The state of Bihar has banned the usage of plastic water bottles in governmental meetings. TheIndonesia
In Bali, one of the many islands of Indonesia, two sisters, Melati and Isabel Wijsen, made efforts to ban plastic bags in 2019. their organization Bye Bye Plastic Bags had spread to over 50 locations around the world.Israel
In Israel, two cities: Eilat andKenya
In August 2017, Kenya has one of the world's harshest plastic bag bans. Fines of $38,000 or up to four years in jail to anyone that was caught producing, selling, or using a plastic bag.New Zealand
New Zealand announced a ban on many types of hard-to-recycle single use plastic by 2025.Nigeria
In 2019, The House of Representatives of Nigeria banned the production, import and usage of plastic bags in the country.Taiwan
In February 2018, Taiwan restricted the use of single-use plastic cups, straws, utensils and bags; the ban will also include an extra charge for plastic bags and updates their recycling regulations and aiming by 2030 it would be completely enforced.United Kingdom
In January 2019, the Iceland supermarket chain, which specializes in frozen foods, pledged to "eliminate or drastically reduce all plastic packaging for its store-brand products by 2023." As of 2020, 104 communities achieved the title of "Plastic free community" in United Kingdom, 500 want to achieve it. After two schoolgirls Ella and Caitlin launched a petition about it, Burger King andUnited States
In 2009, Washington University in St. Louis became the first university in the United States to ban the sale of plastic, single-use water bottles. In 2009, theVanuatu
On July 30, 2017, Vanuatu's Independence Day, made an announcement of stepping towards the beginning of not using plastic bags and bottles. Making it one of the first Pacific nations to do so and will start banning the importation of single-use plastic bottles and bags.Obstruction by major plastic producers
The ten corporations that produce the most plastic on the planet, The Coca-Cola Company, Colgate-Palmolive, Danone, Mars, Incorporated,Deception of the public about recycling
As early as the early 1970s, petrochemical industry leaders understood that the vast majority of plastic they produced would never be recycled. For example, an April 1973 report written by industry scientists for industry executive states that sorting the hundreds of different kinds plastic is "infeasible" and cost-prohibitive. By the late 1980s, industry leaders also knew that the public must be kept feeling good about purchasing plastic products if their industry was to continue to prosper, and needed to quell proposed legislation to regulate the plastic being sold. So the industry launched a $50 million/year corporate propaganda campaign targeting the American public with the message that plastic can be, and is being, recycled, and lobbied American municipalities to launch expensive plastic waste collection programs, and lobbied U.S. states to require the labeling of plastic products and containers with recycling symbols. They were confident, however, that the recycling initiatives would not end up recovering and reusing plastic in amounts anywhere near sufficient to hurt their profits in selling new "virgin" plastic products because they understood that the recycling efforts that they were promoting were likely to fail. Industry leaders more recently have planned 100% recycling of the plastic they produce by 2040, calling for more efficient collection, sorting and processing.Action for creating awareness
Earth Day
In 2019, the Earth Day Network partnered with Keep America Beautiful and National Cleanup Day for the inaugural nationwide Earth Day CleanUp. Cleanups were held in all 50 states, five US territories, 5,300 sites and had more than 500,000 volunteers. Earth Day 2020 is the 50th Anniversary of Earth Day. Celebrations will include activities such as the Great Global CleanUp, Citizen Science, Advocacy, Education, and art. This Earth Day aims to educate and mobilize more than one billion people to grow and support the next generation of environmental activists, with a major focus on plastic wasteWorld Environment Day
Every year, 5 June is observed asOther actions
On 11 April 2013 in order to create awareness, artist Maria Cristina Finucci founded The Garbage Patch State atSee also
* Eddy pumping – The role of mesoscale eddies in trapping and transporting plastic in the ocean * Great Pacific garbage patch – an area with concentrations of pelagic plastics, chemical sludge, and other debris * Plastic-eating organisms * Marine plastic pollution * Plasticulture * Refill (scheme) * Reverse vending machine * Rubber pollutionNotes
References
Sources
* * * Knight, Geof (2012)Further reading
* Colette, Wabnitz & Wallace J. NicholsExternal links
* {{Authority control Anthropocene Pollution Environmental impact of products