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Philosophy (from , )
is the systematized study of general and fundamental questions, such as those about
existence,
reason,
knowledge,
values
In ethics and social sciences, value denotes the degree of importance of something or action, with the aim of determining which actions are best to do or what way is best to live (normative ethics in ethics), or to describe the significance of dif ...
,
mind, and
language. Such questions are often posed as problems to be studied or resolved. Some sources claim the term was coined by
Pythagoras ( BCE), although this theory is disputed by some.
Philosophical methods include
questioning,
critical discussion,
rational argument, and systematic presentation.
[ in .]
Historically, ''philosophy'' encompassed all bodies of knowledge and a practitioner was known as a ''
philosopher''.
["The English word "philosophy" is first attested to , meaning "knowledge, body of knowledge."
] "
natural philosophy," which began as a discipline in ancient India and Ancient Greece, encompasses
astronomy
Astronomy () is a natural science that studies celestial objects and phenomena. It uses mathematics, physics, and chemistry in order to explain their origin and evolution. Objects of interest include planets, moons, stars, nebulae, galax ...
,
medicine, and
physics. For example,
Newton's 1687 ''
Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy
Mathematics is an area of knowledge that includes the topics of numbers, formulas and related structures, shapes and the spaces in which they are contained, and quantities and their changes. These topics are represented in modern mathematics ...
'' later became classified as a book of physics. In the 19th century, the growth of modern
research universities
A research university or a research-intensive university is a university that is committed to research as a central part of its mission. They are the most important sites at which knowledge production occurs, along with "intergenerational kno ...
led academic philosophy and other disciplines to
professionalize and specialize. Since then, various areas of investigation that were traditionally part of philosophy have become separate academic disciplines, and namely the
social sciences such as
psychology,
sociology,
linguistics, and
economics.
Today, major subfields of academic philosophy include
metaphysics, which is concerned with the fundamental nature of
existence and
reality
Reality is the sum or aggregate of all that is real or existent within a system, as opposed to that which is only imaginary. The term is also used to refer to the ontological status of things, indicating their existence. In physical terms, rea ...
;
epistemology, which studies the nature of
knowledge and
belief
A belief is an attitude that something is the case, or that some proposition is true. In epistemology, philosophers use the term "belief" to refer to attitudes about the world which can be either true or false. To believe something is to take ...
;
ethics, which is concerned with
moral value; and
logic, which studies the
rules of inference
In the philosophy of logic, a rule of inference, inference rule or transformation rule is a logical form consisting of a function which takes premises, analyzes their syntax, and returns a conclusion (or conclusions). For example, the rule of in ...
that allow one to derive
conclusions from
true premises. Other notable subfields include
philosophy of religion,
philosophy of science,
political philosophy,
aesthetics
Aesthetics, or esthetics, is a branch of philosophy that deals with the nature of beauty and taste, as well as the philosophy of art (its own area of philosophy that comes out of aesthetics). It examines aesthetic values, often expressed thr ...
,
philosophy of language, and
philosophy of mind.
Definitions
There is wide agreement that philosophy (from the
ancient Greek , phílos: "love"; and , sophía: "wisdom") is characterized by various general features: it is a form of
rational
Rationality is the quality of being guided by or based on reasons. In this regard, a person acts rationally if they have a good reason for what they do or a belief is rational if it is based on strong evidence. This quality can apply to an abili ...
inquiry, it aims to be systematic, and it tends to critically reflect on its own methods and presuppositions.
But approaches that go beyond such vague characterizations to give a more interesting or profound definition are usually controversial.
Often, they are only accepted by theorists belonging to a certain
philosophical movement and are revisionistic in that many presumed parts of philosophy would not deserve the title "philosophy" if they were true.
Before the modern age, the term was used in a very wide sense, which included the individual
sciences, like
physics or
mathematics, as its sub-disciplines, but the contemporary usage is more narrow.
Some approaches argue that there is a set of essential features shared by all parts of philosophy while others see only weaker family resemblances or contend that it is merely an empty blanket term.
Some definitions characterize philosophy in relation to its method, like pure reasoning. Others focus more on its topic, for example, as the study of the biggest patterns of the world as a whole or as the attempt to answer the big questions.
Both approaches have the problem that they are usually either too wide, by including non-philosophical disciplines, or too narrow, by excluding some philosophical sub-disciplines.
Many definitions of philosophy emphasize its intimate relation to science.
In this sense, philosophy is sometimes understood as a proper science in its own right. Some
naturalist approaches, for example, see philosophy as an empirical yet very abstract science that is concerned with very wide-ranging empirical patterns instead of particular observations.
Some
phenomenologists
Phenomenology may refer to:
Art
* Phenomenology (architecture), based on the experience of building materials and their sensory properties
Philosophy
* Phenomenology (philosophy), a branch of philosophy which studies subjective experiences and a ...
, on the other hand, characterize philosophy as the science of
essences.
Science-based definitions usually face the problem of explaining why philosophy in its long history has not made the type of
progress as seen in other sciences.
This problem is avoided by seeing philosophy as an immature or provisional science whose subdisciplines cease to be philosophy once they have fully developed.
In this sense, philosophy is the midwife of the sciences.
Other definitions focus more on the contrast between science and philosophy. A common theme among many such definitions is that philosophy is concerned with
meaning,
understanding, or the clarification of language.
According to one view, philosophy is
conceptual analysis
Philosophical analysis is any of various techniques, typically used by philosophers in the analytic tradition, in order to "break down" (i.e. analyze) philosophical issues. Arguably the most prominent of these techniques is the analysis of concep ...
, which involves finding the
necessary and sufficient conditions for the application of concepts.
Another defines philosophy as a linguistic therapy that aims at dispelling misunderstandings to which humans are susceptible due to the confusing structure of
natural language.
One more approach holds that the main task of philosophy is to articulate the pre-ontological understanding of the world, which acts as a
condition of possibility
In philosophy, condition of possibility (german: Bedingungen der Möglichkeit) is a concept made popular by the German philosopher Immanuel Kant, and is an important part of his philosophy.
A condition of possibility is a necessary framework fo ...
of
experience.
Many other definitions of philosophy do not clearly fall into any of the aforementioned categories. An early approach already found in
ancient Greek and
Roman philosophy
Ancient Roman philosophy was heavily influenced by the ancient Greeks and the schools of Hellenistic philosophy; however, unique developments in philosophical schools of thought occurred during the Roman period as well. Interest in philosophy was ...
is that philosophy is the spiritual practice of developing one's
reasoning ability.
This practice is an expression of the philosopher's love of wisdom and has the aim of improving one's
well-being by leading a reflective life.
A closely related approach identifies the development and articulation of
worldviews
A worldview or world-view or ''Weltanschauung'' is the fundamental cognitive orientation of an individual or society encompassing the whole of the individual's or society's knowledge, culture, and point of view. A worldview can include natural p ...
as the principal task of philosophy, i.e. to express how things on the grand scale hang together and which practical stance we should take towards them.
Another definition characterizes philosophy as ''
thinking about thinking'' in order to emphasize its reflective nature.
Historical overview
In one general sense, philosophy is associated with
wisdom, intellectual culture, and a search for knowledge. In this sense, all cultures and literate societies ask philosophical questions, such as "how are we to live" and "what is the nature of reality". A broad and impartial conception of philosophy, then, finds a reasoned inquiry into such matters as
reality
Reality is the sum or aggregate of all that is real or existent within a system, as opposed to that which is only imaginary. The term is also used to refer to the ontological status of things, indicating their existence. In physical terms, rea ...
,
morality, and life in all world civilizations.
Western philosophy
Western philosophy is the philosophical tradition of the
Western world, dating back to
pre-Socratic thinkers who were active in 6th-century
Greece (BCE), such as
Thales
Thales of Miletus ( ; grc-gre, Θαλῆς; ) was a Greek mathematician, astronomer, statesman, and pre-Socratic philosopher from Miletus in Ionia, Asia Minor. He was one of the Seven Sages of Greece. Many, most notably Aristotle, regarded him ...
( BCE) and
Pythagoras ( BCE) who practiced a 'love of wisdom' ()
and were also termed 'students of nature' ().
Western philosophy can be divided into three eras:
#
Ancient
Ancient history is a time period from the beginning of writing and recorded human history to as far as late antiquity. The span of recorded history is roughly 5,000 years, beginning with the Sumerian cuneiform script. Ancient history cove ...
(
Greco-Roman).
#
Medieval philosophy (referring to Christian European thought).
#
Modern philosophy (beginning in the 17th century).
Ancient era
While our knowledge of the ancient era begins with
Thales
Thales of Miletus ( ; grc-gre, Θαλῆς; ) was a Greek mathematician, astronomer, statesman, and pre-Socratic philosopher from Miletus in Ionia, Asia Minor. He was one of the Seven Sages of Greece. Many, most notably Aristotle, regarded him ...
in the 6th century BCE, little is known about the philosophers who came before
Socrates (commonly known as
the pre-Socratics). The ancient era was dominated by
Greek philosophical schools. Most notable among the schools influenced by Socrates' teachings were
Plato, who founded the
Platonic Academy, and his student
Aristotle, who founded the
Peripatetic school. Other ancient philosophical traditions influenced by Socrates included
Cynicism
Cynic or Cynicism may refer to:
Modes of thought
* Cynicism (philosophy), a school of ancient Greek philosophy
* Cynicism (contemporary), modern use of the word for distrust of others' motives
Books
* ''The Cynic'', James Gordon Stuart Grant 18 ...
,
Cyrenaicism,
Stoicism, and
Academic Skepticism
Academic skepticism refers to the skeptical period of ancient Platonism dating from around 266 BCE, when Arcesilaus became scholarch of the Platonic Academy, until around 90 BCE, when Antiochus of Ascalon rejected skepticism, although individ ...
. Two other traditions were influenced by Socrates' contemporary,
Democritus
Democritus (; el, Δημόκριτος, ''Dēmókritos'', meaning "chosen of the people"; – ) was an Ancient Greek pre-Socratic philosopher from Abdera, primarily remembered today for his formulation of an atomic theory of the universe. N ...
:
Pyrrhonism and
Epicureanism. Important topics covered by the Greeks included
metaphysics (with competing theories such as
atomism
Atomism (from Greek , ''atomon'', i.e. "uncuttable, indivisible") is a natural philosophy proposing that the physical universe is composed of fundamental indivisible components known as atoms.
References to the concept of atomism and its atoms a ...
and
monism),
cosmology
Cosmology () is a branch of physics and metaphysics dealing with the nature of the universe. The term ''cosmology'' was first used in English in 1656 in Thomas Blount's ''Glossographia'', and in 1731 taken up in Latin by German philosopher ...
, the nature of the well-lived life (''
eudaimonia''), the
possibility of knowledge, and the nature of reason (
logos
''Logos'' (, ; grc, λόγος, lógos, lit=word, discourse, or reason) is a term used in Western philosophy, psychology and rhetoric and refers to the appeal to reason that relies on logic or reason, inductive and deductive reasoning. Arist ...
). With the rise of the
Roman empire
The Roman Empire ( la, Imperium Romanum ; grc-gre, Βασιλεία τῶν Ῥωμαίων, Basileía tôn Rhōmaíōn) was the post-Roman Republic, Republican period of ancient Rome. As a polity, it included large territorial holdings aro ...
, Greek philosophy was increasingly discussed in
Latin by
Romans
Roman or Romans most often refers to:
* Rome, the capital city of Italy
* Ancient Rome, Roman civilization from 8th century BC to 5th century AD
* Roman people, the people of ancient Rome
*''Epistle to the Romans'', shortened to ''Romans'', a let ...
such as
Cicero
Marcus Tullius Cicero ( ; ; 3 January 106 BC – 7 December 43 BC) was a Roman statesman, lawyer, scholar, philosopher, and academic skeptic, who tried to uphold optimate principles during the political crises that led to the esta ...
and
Seneca
Seneca may refer to:
People and language
* Seneca (name), a list of people with either the given name or surname
* Seneca people, one of the six Iroquois tribes of North America
** Seneca language, the language of the Seneca people
Places Extra ...
(see
Roman philosophy
Ancient Roman philosophy was heavily influenced by the ancient Greeks and the schools of Hellenistic philosophy; however, unique developments in philosophical schools of thought occurred during the Roman period as well. Interest in philosophy was ...
).
Medieval era
Medieval philosophy (5th–16th centuries) took place during the period following the fall of the
Western Roman Empire and was dominated by the rise of
Christianity; it hence reflects
Judeo-Christian
The term Judeo-Christian is used to group Christianity and Judaism together, either in reference to Christianity's derivation from Judaism, Christianity's borrowing of Jewish Scripture to constitute the "Old Testament" of the Christian Bible, o ...
theological concerns while also retaining a continuity with Greco-Roman thought. Problems such as the existence and nature of
God
In monotheistic thought, God is usually viewed as the supreme being, creator, and principal object of faith. Swinburne, R.G. "God" in Honderich, Ted. (ed)''The Oxford Companion to Philosophy'', Oxford University Press, 1995. God is typically ...
, the nature of
faith and reason, metaphysics, and the
problem of evil were discussed in this period. Some key medieval thinkers include
St. Augustine,
Thomas Aquinas
Thomas Aquinas, OP (; it, Tommaso d'Aquino, lit=Thomas of Aquino; 1225 – 7 March 1274) was an Italian Dominican friar and priest who was an influential philosopher, theologian and jurist in the tradition of scholasticism; he is known w ...
,
Boethius
Anicius Manlius Severinus Boethius, commonly known as Boethius (; Latin: ''Boetius''; 480 – 524 AD), was a Roman senator, consul, ''magister officiorum'', historian, and philosopher of the Early Middle Ages. He was a central figure in the tra ...
,
Anselm and
Roger Bacon
Roger Bacon (; la, Rogerus or ', also '' Rogerus''; ), also known by the scholastic accolade ''Doctor Mirabilis'', was a medieval English philosopher and Franciscan friar who placed considerable emphasis on the study of nature through empiri ...
. Philosophy for these thinkers was viewed as an aid to
theology (), and hence they sought to align their philosophy with their interpretation of sacred scripture. This period saw the development of
scholasticism, a text critical method developed in
medieval universities based on close reading and disputation on key texts. The
Renaissance period saw increasing focus on classic Greco-Roman thought and on a robust
humanism.
Modern era
Early modern philosophy in the Western world begins with thinkers such as
Thomas Hobbes
Thomas Hobbes ( ; 5/15 April 1588 – 4/14 December 1679) was an English philosopher, considered to be one of the founders of modern political philosophy. Hobbes is best known for his 1651 book ''Leviathan'', in which he expounds an influent ...
and
René Descartes (1596–1650).
Following the rise of natural science,
modern philosophy was concerned with developing a secular and rational foundation for knowledge and moved away from traditional structures of authority such as religion, scholastic thought and the Church. Major modern philosophers include
Spinoza
Baruch (de) Spinoza (born Bento de Espinosa; later as an author and a correspondent ''Benedictus de Spinoza'', anglicized to ''Benedict de Spinoza''; 24 November 1632 – 21 February 1677) was a Dutch Republic, Dutch philosopher of Spanish and ...
,
Leibniz
Gottfried Wilhelm (von) Leibniz . ( – 14 November 1716) was a German polymath active as a mathematician, philosopher, scientist and diplomat. He is one of the most prominent figures in both the history of philosophy and the history of mathema ...
,
Locke,
Berkeley,
Hume, and
Kant.
19th-century philosophy
In the 19th century, the philosophers of the 18th-century Enlightenment began to have a dramatic effect on subsequent developments in philosophy. In particular, the works of Immanuel Kant gave rise to a new generation of German philosophers and ...
(sometimes called
late modern philosophy) was influenced by the wider 18th-century movement termed "
the Enlightenment", and includes figures such as
Hegel, a key figure in
German idealism;
Kierkegaard, who developed the foundations for
existentialism;
Thomas Carlyle
Thomas Carlyle (4 December 17955 February 1881) was a Scottish essayist, historian and philosopher. A leading writer of the Victorian era, he exerted a profound influence on 19th-century art, literature and philosophy.
Born in Ecclefechan, Dum ...
, representative of the
great man theory;
Nietzsche, a famed anti-Christian;
John Stuart Mill, who promoted
utilitarianism;
Karl Marx, who developed the foundations for
communism; and the American
William James. The 20th century saw the split between
analytic philosophy
Analytic philosophy is a branch and tradition of philosophy using analysis, popular in the Western world and particularly the Anglosphere, which began around the turn of the 20th century in the contemporary era in the United Kingdom, United Sta ...
and
continental philosophy
Continental philosophy is a term used to describe some philosophers and philosophical traditions that do not fall under the umbrella of analytic philosophy. However, there is no academic consensus on the definition of continental philosophy. Prio ...
, as well as philosophical trends such as
phenomenology,
existentialism,
logical positivism,
pragmatism
Pragmatism is a philosophical tradition that considers words and thought as tools and instruments for prediction, problem solving, and action, and rejects the idea that the function of thought is to describe, represent, or mirror reality. Pr ...
and the
linguistic turn (see
Contemporary philosophy
Contemporary philosophy is the present period in the history of Western philosophy beginning at the early 20th century with the increasing professionalization of the discipline and the rise of analytic and continental philosophy.
The phrase "co ...
).
Middle Eastern philosophy
Pre-Islamic philosophy
The regions of the
Fertile Crescent,
Iran and
Arabia
The Arabian Peninsula, (; ar, شِبْهُ الْجَزِيرَةِ الْعَرَبِيَّة, , "Arabian Peninsula" or , , "Island of the Arabs") or Arabia, is a peninsula of Western Asia, situated northeast of Africa on the Arabian Plat ...
are home to the earliest known philosophical wisdom literature.
According to the
assyriologist Marc Van de Mieroop
Marc Van de Mieroop (b. 22 October 1956) is a noted Belgian Assyriologist and Egyptologist who has been full professor of Ancient Near Eastern history at Columbia University since 1996.
Biography
Born in Belgium to a prominent Flemish family ...
,
Babylonian philosophy was a highly developed system of thought with a unique approach to knowledge and a focus on writing,
lexicography
Lexicography is the study of lexicons, and is divided into two separate academic disciplines. It is the art of compiling dictionaries.
* Practical lexicography is the art or craft of compiling, writing and editing dictionaries.
* Theoretica ...
, divination, and law. It was also a
bilingual
Multilingualism is the use of more than one language, either by an individual speaker or by a group of speakers. It is believed that multilingual speakers outnumber monolingual speakers in the world's population. More than half of all Eu ...
intellectual culture, based on
Sumerian and
Akkadian Akkadian or Accadian may refer to:
* Akkadians, inhabitants of the Akkadian Empire
* Akkadian language, an extinct Eastern Semitic language
* Akkadian literature, literature in this language
* Akkadian cuneiform
Cuneiform is a logo-syllabic ...
.
Early
Wisdom literature from the Fertile Crescent was a genre that sought to instruct people on ethical action, practical living, and virtue through stories and proverbs. In
Ancient Egypt, these texts were known as ''
sebayt'' ('teachings'), and they are central to our understandings of
Ancient Egyptian philosophy
Ancient Egyptian philosophy refers to the philosophical works and beliefs of Ancient Egypt. There is some debate regarding its true scope and nature.Juan José Castillos, Ancient Egyptian Philosophy, RSUE 31, 2014, 29-37.
Notable works
One Eg ...
. The most well known of these texts is ''
The Maxims of Ptahhotep.'' Theology and cosmology were central concerns in Egyptian thought. Perhaps the earliest form of a
monotheistic
Monotheism is the belief that there is only one deity, an all-supreme being that is universally referred to as God. Cross, F.L.; Livingstone, E.A., eds. (1974). "Monotheism". The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (2 ed.). Oxford: Oxfor ...
theology also emerged in Egypt, with the rise of the
Amarna theology (or Atenism) of
Akhenaten
Akhenaten (pronounced ), also spelled Echnaton, Akhenaton, ( egy, ꜣḫ-n-jtn ''ʾŪḫə-nə-yātəy'', , meaning "Effective for the Aten"), was an ancient Egyptian pharaoh reigning or 1351–1334 BC, the tenth ruler of the Eighteenth D ...
(14th century BCE), which held that the solar creation deity
Aten
Aten also Aton, Atonu, or Itn ( egy, jtn, ''reconstructed'' ) was the focus of Atenism, the religious system established in ancient Egypt by the Eighteenth Dynasty pharaoh Akhenaten. The Aten was the disc of the sun and originally an aspect ...
was the only god. This has been described as a "monotheistic revolution" by
egyptologist
Egyptology (from ''Egypt'' and Greek , ''-logia''; ar, علم المصريات) is the study of ancient Egyptian history, language, literature, religion, architecture and art from the 5th millennium BC until the end of its native religious ...
Jan Assmann, though it also drew on previous developments in Egyptian thought, particularly the "New Solar Theology" based around
Amun-Ra
Amun (; also ''Amon'', ''Ammon'', ''Amen''; egy, jmn, reconstructed as (Old Egyptian and early Middle Egyptian) → (later Middle Egyptian) → (Late Egyptian), cop, Ⲁⲙⲟⲩⲛ, Amoun) romanized: ʾmn) was a major ancient Egyptian ...
.
These theological developments also influenced the post-Amarna
Ramesside
The New Kingdom, also referred to as the Egyptian Empire, is the period in ancient Egyptian history between the sixteenth century BC and the eleventh century BC, covering the Eighteenth, Nineteenth, and Twentieth dynasties of Egypt. Radioca ...
theology, which retained a focus on a single creative solar deity (though without outright rejection of other gods, which are now seen as manifestations of the main solar deity). This period also saw the development of the concept of the
''ba'' (soul) and its relation to god.
Jewish philosophy
Jewish philosophy () includes all philosophy carried out by Jews, or in relation to the religion of Judaism. Until modern ''Haskalah'' (Jewish Enlightenment) and Jewish emancipation, Jewish philosophy was preoccupied with attempts to reconcile ...
and
Christian philosophy
Christian philosophy includes all philosophy carried out by Christians, or in relation to the religion of Christianity.
Christian philosophy emerged with the aim of reconciling science and faith, starting from natural rational explanations w ...
are religious-philosophical traditions that developed both in the Middle East and in Europe, which both share certain early Judaic texts (mainly the
Tanakh) and monotheistic beliefs. Jewish thinkers such as the
Geonim
''Geonim'' ( he, גאונים; ; also transliterated Gaonim, singular Gaon) were the presidents of the two great Babylonian Talmudic Academies of Sura and Pumbedita, in the Abbasid Caliphate, and were the generally accepted spiritual leaders o ...
of the
Talmudic Academies in Babylonia and
Maimonides engaged with Greek and Islamic philosophy. Later Jewish philosophy came under strong Western intellectual influences and includes the works of
Moses Mendelssohn who ushered in the
Haskalah (the Jewish Enlightenment),
Jewish existentialism Jewish existentialism is a category of work by Jewish authors dealing with existentialist themes and concepts (e.g. debate about the existence of God and the meaning of human existence), and intended to answer theological questions that are importan ...
, and
Reform Judaism.
The various traditions of
Gnosticism, which were influenced by both Greek and Abrahamic currents, originated around the first century and emphasized spiritual knowledge (''
gnosis'').
Pre-Islamic
Iranian philosophy begins with the work of
Zoroaster
Zoroaster,; fa, زرتشت, Zartosht, label=Modern Persian; ku, زەردەشت, Zerdeşt also known as Zarathustra,, . Also known as Zarathushtra Spitama, or Ashu Zarathushtra is regarded as the spiritual founder of Zoroastrianism. He is s ...
, one of the first promoters of
monotheism and of the
dualism between good and evil. This dualistic cosmogony influenced later Iranian developments such as
Manichaeism,
Mazdakism, and
Zurvanism
Zurvanism is a fatalistic religious movement of Zoroastrianism in which the divinity Zurvan is a first principle (primordial creator deity) who engendered equal-but-opposite twins, Ahura Mazda and Angra Mainyu. Zurvanism is also known as "Zurv ...
.
Islamic philosophy
Islamic philosophy is the philosophical work originating in the
Islamic tradition and is mostly done in
Arabic
Arabic (, ' ; , ' or ) is a Semitic language spoken primarily across the Arab world.Semitic languages: an international handbook / edited by Stefan Weninger; in collaboration with Geoffrey Khan, Michael P. Streck, Janet C. E.Watson; Walte ...
. It draws from the religion of Islam as well as from Greco-Roman philosophy. After the
Muslim conquests
The early Muslim conquests or early Islamic conquests ( ar, الْفُتُوحَاتُ الإسْلَامِيَّة, ), also referred to as the Arab conquests, were initiated in the 7th century by Muhammad, the main Islamic prophet. He estab ...
, the
translation movement (mid-eighth to the late tenth century) resulted in the works of Greek philosophy becoming available in Arabic.
Early Islamic philosophy
Early Islamic philosophy or classical Islamic philosophy is a period of intense philosophical development beginning in the 2nd century AH of the Islamic calendar (early 9th century CE) and lasting until the 6th century AH (late 12th century CE) ...
developed the Greek philosophical traditions in new innovative directions. This intellectual work inaugurated what is known as the
Islamic Golden Age. The two main currents of early Islamic thought are
Kalam, which focuses on
Islamic theology
Schools of Islamic theology are various Islamic schools and branches in different schools of thought regarding '' ʿaqīdah'' (creed). The main schools of Islamic Theology include the Qadariyah, Falasifa, Jahmiyya, Murji'ah, Muʿtazila, Ba ...
, and
Falsafa, which was based on
Aristotelianism
Aristotelianism ( ) is a philosophical tradition inspired by the work of Aristotle, usually characterized by deductive logic and an analytic inductive method in the study of natural philosophy and metaphysics. It covers the treatment of the socia ...
and
Neoplatonism. The work of Aristotle was very influential among philosophers such as
Al-Kindi
Abū Yūsuf Yaʻqūb ibn ʼIsḥāq aṣ-Ṣabbāḥ al-Kindī (; ar, أبو يوسف يعقوب بن إسحاق الصبّاح الكندي; la, Alkindus; c. 801–873 AD) was an Arab Muslim philosopher, polymath, mathematician, physician ...
(9th century),
Avicenna
Ibn Sina ( fa, ابن سینا; 980 – June 1037 CE), commonly known in the West as Avicenna (), was a Persian polymath who is regarded as one of the most significant physicians, astronomers, philosophers, and writers of the Islamic ...
(980 – June 1037), and
Averroes
Ibn Rushd ( ar, ; full name in ; 14 April 112611 December 1198), often Latinized as Averroes ( ), was an
Andalusian polymath and jurist who wrote about many subjects, including philosophy, theology, medicine, astronomy, physics, psychology ...
(12th century). Others such as
Al-Ghazali
Al-Ghazali ( – 19 December 1111; ), full name (), and known in Persian-speaking countries as Imam Muhammad-i Ghazali (Persian: امام محمد غزالی) or in Medieval Europe by the Latinized as Algazelus or Algazel, was a Persian polymat ...
were highly critical of the methods of the Islamic Aristotelians and saw their metaphysical ideas as heretical. Islamic thinkers like
Ibn al-Haytham and
Al-Biruni also developed a
scientific method, experimental medicine, a theory of optics, and a legal philosophy.
Ibn Khaldun was an influential thinker in
philosophy of history.
Islamic thought also deeply influenced European intellectual developments, especially through the commentaries of Averroes on Aristotle. The
Mongol invasions and the
destruction of Baghdad in 1258 are often seen as marking the end of the Golden Age. Several schools of Islamic philosophy continued to flourish after the Golden Age, however, and include currents such as
Illuminationist philosophy,
Sufi philosophy, and
Transcendent theosophy.
The 19th- and 20th-century
Arab world
The Arab world ( ar, اَلْعَالَمُ الْعَرَبِيُّ '), formally the Arab homeland ( '), also known as the Arab nation ( '), the Arabsphere, or the Arab states, refers to a vast group of countries, mainly located in Western As ...
saw the ''
Nahda'' movement (literally meaning 'The Awakening'; also known as the 'Arab Renaissance'), which had a considerable influence on
contemporary Islamic philosophy
Contemporary Islamic philosophy revives some of the trends of medieval Islamic philosophy, notably the tension between Mutazilite and Asharite views of ethics in science and law, and the duty of Muslims and role of Islam in the sociology of kn ...
.
Eastern philosophy
Indian philosophy
Indian philosophy ( sa, , lit=point of view', 'perspective) refers to the diverse philosophical traditions that emerged since the ancient times on the
Indian subcontinent. Indian philosophy chiefly considers epistemology, theories of consciousness and theories of mind, and the physical properties of reality. Indian philosophical traditions share various key concepts and ideas, which are defined in different ways and accepted or rejected by the different traditions. These include concepts such as
''dhárma'', ''
karma
Karma (; sa, कर्म}, ; pi, kamma, italic=yes) in Sanskrit means an action, work, or deed, and its effect or consequences. In Indian religions, the term more specifically refers to a principle of cause and effect, often descriptivel ...
'', ''
pramāṇa,'' ''
duḥkha
''Duḥkha'' (; Sanskrit: दुःख; Pāli: ''dukkha''), commonly translated as "suffering", "pain," or "unhappiness," is an important concept in Buddhism, Jainism and Hinduism. Its meaning depends on the context, and may refer more specif ...
,
saṃsāra'' and ''
mokṣa.''
Some of the earliest surviving Indian philosophical texts are the
Upanishads of the
later Vedic period (1000–500 BCE), which are considered to preserve the ideas of
Brahmanism. Indian philosophical traditions are commonly grouped according to their relationship to the Vedas and the ideas contained in them.
Jainism and
Buddhism
Buddhism ( , ), also known as Buddha Dharma and Dharmavinaya (), is an Indian religion or philosophical tradition based on teachings attributed to the Buddha. It originated in northern India as a -movement in the 5th century BCE, and gra ...
originated at the end of the
Vedic period
The Vedic period, or the Vedic age (), is the period in the late Bronze Age and early Iron Age of the history of India when the Vedic literature, including the Vedas (ca. 1300–900 BCE), was composed in the northern Indian subcontinent, betwe ...
, while the various traditions grouped under
Hinduism mostly emerged after the Vedic period as independent traditions. Hindus generally classify Indian philosophical traditions as either orthodox (
''āstika'') or heterodox (''nāstika'') depending on whether they accept the authority of the
Vedas and the theories of ''
brahman'' and
''ātman'' found therein.
The schools which align themselves with the thought of the Upanishads, the so-called "orthodox" or "
Hindu" traditions, are often classified into six ''
darśanas'' or philosophies:
Sānkhya,
Yoga,
Nyāya
(Sanskrit: न्याय, ''nyā-yá''), literally meaning "justice", "rules", "method" or "judgment",[Vaisheshika, Mimāmsā and ]Vedānta
''Vedanta'' (; sa, वेदान्त, ), also ''Uttara Mīmāṃsā'', is one of the six (''āstika'') schools of Hindu philosophy. Literally meaning "end of the Vedas", Vedanta reflects ideas that emerged from, or were aligned with, t ...
.
The doctrines of the Vedas and Upanishads were interpreted differently by these six schools of Hindu philosophy
Hindu philosophy encompasses the philosophies, world views and teachings of Hinduism that emerged in Ancient India which include six systems ('' shad-darśana'') – Samkhya, Yoga, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Mimamsa and Vedanta.Andrew Nicholson (2 ...
, with varying degrees of overlap. They represent a "collection of philosophical views that share a textual connection", according to Chadha (2015). They also reflect a tolerance for a diversity of philosophical interpretations within Hinduism while sharing the same foundation.
Hindu philosophers of the six orthodox schools developed systems of epistemology (''pramana
''Pramana'' (Sanskrit: प्रमाण, ) literally means "proof" and "means of knowledge".[guṇa
( sa, गुण) is a concept in Hinduism, Jainism and Sikhism, which can be translated as "quality, peculiarity, attribute, property".] ''), hermeneutics, and soteriology within the framework of the Vedic knowledge, while presenting a diverse collection of interpretations. The commonly named six orthodox schools were the competing philosophical traditions of what has been called the "Hindu synthesis" of classical Hinduism.
There are also other schools of thought which are often seen as "Hindu", though not necessarily orthodox (since they may accept different scriptures as normative, such as the Shaiva Agamas and Tantras), these include different schools of Shavism such as Pashupata
Pashupata Shaivism (, sa, पाशुपत) is the oldest of the major Shaivite Hindu schools. The mainstream which follows Vedic Pasupata penance are 'Maha Pasupatas' and the schism of 'Lakula Pasupata' of Lakulisa.
There is a debate about ...
, Shaiva Siddhanta, non-dual tantric Shavism (i.e. Trika, Kaula, etc.).
The "Hindu" and "Orthodox" traditions are often contrasted with the "unorthodox" traditions (''nāstika,'' literally "those who reject"), though this is a label that is not used by the "unorthodox" schools themselves. These traditions reject the Vedas as authoritative and often reject major concepts and ideas that are widely accepted by the orthodox schools (such as ''Ātman'', ''Brahman'', and ''Īśvara''). These unorthodox schools include Jainism (accepts ''ātman'' but rejects ''Īśvara,'' Vedas and ''Brahman''), Buddhism (rejects all orthodox concepts except rebirth and karma), Cārvāka
Charvaka ( sa, चार्वाक; IAST: ''Cārvāka''), also known as ''Lokāyata'', is an ancient school of Indian materialism. Charvaka holds direct perception, empiricism, and conditional inference as proper sources of knowledge, embra ...
(materialists who reject even rebirth and karma) and Ājīvika (known for their doctrine of fate).<
Jain philosophy
Jain philosophy refers to the ancient Indian philosophical system found in Jainism. One of the main features of Jain philosophy is its dualistic metaphysics, which holds that there are two distinct categories of existence, the living, consciou ...
is one of the only two surviving "unorthodox" traditions (along with Buddhism). It generally accepts the concept of a permanent soul (''jiva
''Jiva'' ( sa, जीव, IAST: ) is a living being or any entity imbued with a life force in Hinduism and Jainism. The word itself originates from the Sanskrit verb-root ''jīv'', which translates as 'to breathe' or 'to live'. The ''jiva'', ...
'') as one of the five '' astikayas'' (eternal, infinite categories that make up the substance of existence). The other four being ''dhárma'', ''adharma
Adharma is the Sanskrit antonym of dharma. It means "that which is not in accord with the dharma". Connotations include betrayal, discord, disharmony, unnaturalness, wrongness, evil, immorality, unrighteousness, wickedness, and vice..In Indian ...
'', '' ākāśa'' ('space'), and ''pudgala
In Jainism, Pudgala (or ') is one of the six Dravyas, or aspects of reality that fabricate the world we live in. The six ''dravya''s include the jiva and the fivefold divisions of ajiva (non-living) category: ''dharma'' (motion), ''adharma'' ( ...
'' ('matter'). Jain thought holds that all existence is cyclic, eternal and uncreated.
Some of the most important elements of Jain philosophy are the Jain theory of karma, the doctrine of nonviolence (ahiṃsā
Ahimsa (, IAST: ''ahiṃsā'', ) is the ancient Indian principle of nonviolence which applies to all living beings. It is a key virtue in most Indian religions: Jainism, Buddhism, and Hinduism.Bajpai, Shiva (2011). The History of India – F ...
) and the theory of "many-sidedness" or Anēkāntavāda. The ''Tattvartha Sutra
''Tattvārthasūtra'', meaning "On the Nature '' ''artha">nowiki/>''artha''.html" ;"title="artha.html" ;"title="nowiki/>''artha">nowiki/>''artha''">artha.html" ;"title="nowiki/>''artha">nowiki/>''artha''of Reality 'tattva'' (also known as ...
'' is the earliest known, most comprehensive and authoritative compilation of Jain philosophy.
Major European Quantum Physicists, including Erwin Schrödinger, Werner Heisenberg, Albert Einstein, & Niels Bohr credit the Vedas with giving them the ideas for their experiments.
Buddhist philosophy
Buddhist philosophy begins with the thought of Gautama Buddha
Siddhartha Gautama, most commonly referred to as the Buddha, was a wandering ascetic and religious teacher who lived in South Asia during the 6th or 5th century BCE and founded Buddhism.
According to Buddhist tradition, he was born in L ...
( fl. between 6th and 4th century BCE) and is preserved in the early Buddhist texts. It originated in the Indian region of Magadha and later spread to the rest of the Indian subcontinent, East Asia, Tibet, Central Asia, and Southeast Asia. In these regions, Buddhist thought developed into different philosophical traditions which used various languages (like Tibetan
Tibetan may mean:
* of, from, or related to Tibet
* Tibetan people, an ethnic group
* Tibetan language:
** Classical Tibetan, the classical language used also as a contemporary written standard
** Standard Tibetan, the most widely used spoken diale ...
, Chinese
Chinese can refer to:
* Something related to China
* Chinese people, people of Chinese nationality, citizenship, and/or ethnicity
**''Zhonghua minzu'', the supra-ethnic concept of the Chinese nation
** List of ethnic groups in China, people of v ...
and Pali
Pali () is a Middle Indo-Aryan liturgical language native to the Indian subcontinent. It is widely studied because it is the language of the Buddhist ''Pāli Canon'' or '' Tipiṭaka'' as well as the sacred language of ''Theravāda'' Buddhi ...
). As such, Buddhist philosophy is a trans-cultural and international phenomenon.
The dominant Buddhist philosophical traditions in East Asian
East Asia is the eastern region of Asia, which is defined in both geographical and ethno-cultural terms. The modern states of East Asia include China, Japan, Mongolia, North Korea, South Korea, and Taiwan. China, North Korea, South Korea and ...
nations are mainly based on Indian Mahayana Buddhism. The philosophy of the Theravada school is dominant in Southeast Asian countries like Sri Lanka, Burma
Myanmar, ; UK pronunciations: US pronunciations incl. . Note: Wikipedia's IPA conventions require indicating /r/ even in British English although only some British English speakers pronounce r at the end of syllables. As John Wells explai ...
and Thailand.
Because ignorance to the true nature of things is considered one of the roots of suffering ('' dukkha''), Buddhist philosophy is concerned with epistemology, metaphysics, ethics and psychology. Buddhist philosophical texts must also be understood within the context of meditative practices which are supposed to bring about certain cognitive shifts. Key innovative concepts include the Four Noble Truths
In Buddhism, the Four Noble Truths (Sanskrit: ; pi, cattāri ariyasaccāni; "The four Arya satyas") are "the truths of the Noble Ones", the truths or realities for the "spiritually worthy ones". _as_an_analysis_of_''dukkha'',_Impermanence">''anicca''_(impermanence),_and_''anatta.html" ;"title="Impermanence.html" ;"title="Four Noble Truths: BUDDHIST PHILOSOPHY Encycl ...
as an analysis of ''dukkha'', Impermanence">''anicca'' (impermanence), and ''anatta">Impermanence.html" ;"title="Four Noble Truths: BUDDHIST PHILOSOPHY Encycl ...
as an analysis of ''dukkha'', Impermanence">''anicca'' (impermanence), and ''anatta'' (non-self).
After the death of the Buddha, various groups began to systematize his main teachings, eventually developing comprehensive philosophical systems termed ''Abhidharma''. Following the Abhidharma schools, Indian
Mahayana philosophers such as Nagarjuna and Vasubandhu developed the theories of ''
śūnyatā'' ('emptiness of all phenomena') and
''vijñapti-matra'' ('appearance only'), a form of phenomenology or
transcendental idealism. The
Dignāga school of ''
pramāṇa'' ('means of knowledge') promoted a sophisticated form of
Buddhist epistemology.
There were numerous schools, sub-schools, and traditions of Buddhist philosophy in ancient and medieval India. According to Oxford professor of Buddhist philosophy
Jan Westerhoff
Jan Christoph Westerhoff is a German philosopher and orientalist with specific interests in metaphysics and the philosophy of language. He is currently Professor of Buddhist Philosophy in the Faculty of Theology and Religion of the University of O ...
, the major Indian schools from 300 BCE to 1000 CE were: the
Mahāsāṃghika
The Mahāsāṃghika ( Brahmi: 𑀫𑀳𑀸𑀲𑀸𑀁𑀖𑀺𑀓, "of the Great Sangha", ) was one of the early Buddhist schools. Interest in the origins of the Mahāsāṃghika school lies in the fact that their Vinaya recension appears in ...
tradition (now extinct), the
Sthavira schools (such as
Sarvāstivāda
The ''Sarvāstivāda'' (Sanskrit and Pali: 𑀲𑀩𑁆𑀩𑀢𑁆𑀣𑀺𑀯𑀸𑀤, ) was one of the early Buddhist schools established around the reign of Ashoka (3rd century BCE).Westerhoff, The Golden Age of Indian Buddhist Philosophy ...
,
Vibhajyavāda and
Pudgalavāda) and the
Mahayana schools. Many of these traditions were also studied in other regions, like Central Asia and China, having been brought there by Buddhist missionaries.
After the disappearance of Buddhism from India, some of these philosophical traditions continued to develop in the
Tibetan Buddhist,
East Asian Buddhist
East Asian Buddhism or East Asian Mahayana is a collective term for the schools of Mahāyāna Buddhism that developed across East Asia which follow the Chinese Buddhist canon. These include the various forms of Chinese, Japanese, Korean, and ...
and
Theravada Buddhist
''Theravāda'' () ( si, ථේරවාදය, my, ထေရဝါဒ, th, เถรวาท, km, ថេរវាទ, lo, ເຖຣະວາດ, pi, , ) is the most commonly accepted name of Buddhism's oldest existing school. The school' ...
traditions.
East Asian philosophy
East Asian philosophical thought began in
Ancient China
The earliest known written records of the history of China date from as early as 1250 BC, from the Shang dynasty (c. 1600–1046 BC), during the reign of king Wu Ding. Ancient historical texts such as the ''Book of Documents'' (early chapter ...
, and
Chinese philosophy
Chinese philosophy originates in the Spring and Autumn period () and Warring States period (), during a period known as the "Hundred Schools of Thought", which was characterized by significant intellectual and cultural developmen ...
begins during the
Western Zhou Dynasty and the following periods after its fall when the "
Hundred Schools of Thought" flourished (6th century to 221 BCE).
This period was characterized by significant intellectual and cultural developments and saw the rise of the major philosophical schools of China such as
Confucianism (also known as Ruism),
Legalism, and
Taoism as well as numerous other less influential schools like
Mohism and
Naturalism. These philosophical traditions developed metaphysical, political and ethical theories such
Tao
''Tao'' or ''Dao'' is the natural order of the universe, whose character one's intuition must discern to realize the potential for individual wisdom, as conceived in the context of East Asian philosophy, East Asian religions, or any other phil ...
,
Yin and yang,
Ren and
Li.
These schools of thought further developed during the
Han (206 BCE – 220 CE) and
Tang (618–907 CE) eras, forming new philosophical movements like ''
Xuanxue
Xuanxue (), sometimes called Neo-Daoism (Neo-Taoism), is a metaphysical post-classical Chinese philosophy from the Six Dynasties (222-589), bringing together Taoist and Confucian beliefs through revision and discussion. The movement found its scri ...
'' (also called ''Neo-Taoism''), and
Neo-Confucianism. Neo-Confucianism was a syncretic philosophy, which incorporated the ideas of different Chinese philosophical traditions, including Buddhism and Taoism. Neo-Confucianism came to dominate the education system during the
Song dynasty (960–1297), and its ideas served as the philosophical basis of the
imperial exams for the
scholar official class. Some of the most important Neo-Confucian thinkers are the Tang scholars
Han Yu
Han Yu (; 76825 December 824), courtesy name Tuizhi (), and commonly known by his posthumous name Han Wengong (韓文公), was a Chinese essayist, poet, philosopher, and politician during the Tang dynasty who significantly influenced the devel ...
and
Li Ao
Li Ao (, also spelled Lee Ao; 25 April 1935 – 18 March 2018) was a Chinese writer, social commentator, historian and independent politician based in Taiwan.
Li has been called one of the most important modern East Asian essayists today; his ...
as well as the Song thinkers
Zhou Dunyi
Zhou Dunyi (; 1017–1073) was a Chinese cosmologist, philosopher, and writer during the Song dynasty. He conceptualized the Neo-Confucian cosmology of the day, explaining the relationship between human conduct and universal forces. In this wa ...
(1017–1073) and
Zhu Xi (1130–1200). Zhu Xi compiled the Confucian canon, which consists of the
Four Books (the ''
Great Learning
The ''Great Learning'' or ''Daxue'' was one of the "Four Books" in Confucianism attributed to one of Confucius' disciples, Zengzi. The ''Great Learning'' had come from a chapter in the ''Book of Rites'' which formed one of the Five Classics. ...
'', the ''
Doctrine of the Mean'', the ''
Analects
The ''Analects'' (; ; Old Chinese: '' ŋ(r)aʔ''; meaning "Selected Sayings"), also known as the ''Analects of Confucius'', the ''Sayings of Confucius'', or the ''Lun Yu'', is an ancient Chinese book composed of a large collection of sayings a ...
'' of Confucius, and the ''
Mencius''). The Ming scholar
Wang Yangming (1472–1529) is a later but important philosopher of this tradition as well.
Buddhism began arriving in China during the Han Dynasty, through a
gradual Silk road transmission, and through native influences developed distinct Chinese forms (such as Chan/
Zen
Zen ( zh, t=禪, p=Chán; ja, text= 禅, translit=zen; ko, text=선, translit=Seon; vi, text=Thiền) is a school of Mahayana Buddhism that originated in China during the Tang dynasty, known as the Chan School (''Chánzong'' 禪宗), and l ...
) which spread throughout the
East Asian cultural sphere
The East Asian cultural sphere, also known as the Sinosphere, the Sinic world, the Sinitic world, the Chinese cultural sphere, the Chinese character sphere encompasses multiple countries in East Asia and Southeast Asia that were historically ...
.
Chinese culture was highly influential on the traditions of other East Asian states, and its philosophy directly influenced
Korean philosophy,
Vietnamese philosophy
Vietnamese philosophy includes both traditional Confucian philosophy, Vietnamese local religious traditions, and later philosophy introducing French, Marxist, Catholic and other influences.
Confucianism in Vietnam
Confucianism entered Vietnam ...
and
Japanese philosophy. During later Chinese dynasties like the
Ming Dynasty (1368–1644), as well as in the Korean
Joseon dynasty (1392–1897), a resurgent
Neo-Confucianism led by thinkers such as
Wang Yangming (1472–1529) became the dominant school of thought and was promoted by the imperial state. In Japan, the
Tokugawa shogunate (1603–1867) was also strongly influenced by Confucian philosophy. Confucianism continues to influence the ideas and worldview of the nations of the
Chinese cultural sphere
The East Asian cultural sphere, also known as the Sinosphere, the Sinic world, the Sinitic world, the Chinese cultural sphere, the Chinese character sphere encompasses multiple countries in East Asia and Southeast Asia that were historically ...
today.
In the Modern era, Chinese thinkers incorporated ideas from Western philosophy.
Chinese Marxist philosophy
Chinese Marxist philosophy is the philosophy of dialectical materialism that was introduced into China in the early 1900s and continues in the Chinese academia to the current day.
Marxist philosophy was initially imported into China between 1900 ...
developed under the influence of
Mao Zedong, while a Chinese pragmatism developed under
Hu Shih
Hu Shih (; 17 December 1891 – 24 February 1962), also known as Hu Suh in early references, was a Chinese diplomat, essayist, literary scholar, philosopher, and politician. Hu is widely recognized today as a key contributor to Chinese libera ...
. The old traditional philosophies also began to reassert themselves in the 20th century. For example,
New Confucianism
New Confucianism () is an intellectual movement of Confucianism that began in the early 20th century in Republican China, and further developed in post-Mao era contemporary China. It primarily developed during the May Fourth Movement. It is d ...
, led by figures such as
Xiong Shili
Xiong Shili (, 1885 – May 23, 1968) was a Chinese essayist and philosopher whose major work ''A New Treatise on Vijñaptimātra'' (新唯識論, ''Xin Weishi Lun'') is a Confucian critique of the Buddhist ''Vijñapti-mātra'' "consciousness ...
, has become quite influential. Likewise,
Humanistic Buddhism is a recent modernist Buddhist movement.
Modern Japanese thought meanwhile developed under strong Western influences such as the study of Western Sciences (
Rangaku) and the modernist
Meirokusha
The was an intellectual society in Meiji period Japan that published social-criticism journal .
Proposed by statesman Mori Arinori in 1873 (six years after the Meiji Restoration) and officially formed on 1 February 1874, the Meirokusha was in ...
intellectual society, which drew from European enlightenment thought and promoted liberal reforms as well as Western philosophies like Liberalism and Utilitarianism. Another trend in modern Japanese philosophy was the "National Studies" (
Kokugaku) tradition. This intellectual trend sought to study and promote ancient Japanese thought and culture. Kokugaku thinkers such as
Motoori Norinaga
was a Japanese scholar of ''Kokugaku'' active during the Edo period. He is conventionally ranked as one of the Four Great Men of Kokugaku (nativist) studies.
Life
Norinaga was born in what is now Matsusaka in Ise Province (now part of Mie P ...
sought to return to a pure Japanese tradition which they called
Shinto that they saw as untainted by foreign elements.
During the 20th century, the
Kyoto School, an influential and unique Japanese philosophical school, developed from Western
phenomenology and Medieval Japanese Buddhist philosophy such as that of
Dogen.
African philosophy
African philosophy is philosophy produced by
African people
The population of Africa has grown rapidly over the past century and consequently shows a large youth bulge, further reinforced by a low life expectancy of below 50 years in some African countries. Total population as of 2020 is estimated at ...
, philosophy that presents African worldviews, ideas and themes, or philosophy that uses distinct African philosophical methods. Modern African thought has been occupied with
Ethnophilosophy, that is, defining the very meaning of African philosophy and its unique characteristics and what it means to be
African.
During the 17th century,
Ethiopian philosophy
Ethiopian philosophy or Abyssinian philosophy is the philosophical corpus of the territories of present-day Ethiopia and Eritrea. Besides via oral tradition, it was preserved early in written form through Ge'ez manuscripts. This philosophy occupi ...
developed a robust literary tradition as exemplified by
Zera Yacob. Another early African philosopher was
Anton Wilhelm Amo
Anton Wilhelm Amo or Anthony William Amo (c. 1703 – c. 1759) was an African philosopher originally from what is now Ghana. Amo was a professor at the universities of Halle and Jena in Germany after studying there. He was brought to Germany by ...
(–1759) who became a respected philosopher in Germany. Distinct African philosophical ideas include
Ujamaa
Ujamaa ( in Swahili) was a socialist ideology that formed the basis of Julius Nyerere's social and economic development policies in Tanzania after it gained independence from Britain in 1961.
More broadly, ujamaa may mean "cooperative economi ...
, the
Bantu
Bantu may refer to:
*Bantu languages, constitute the largest sub-branch of the Niger–Congo languages
*Bantu peoples, over 400 peoples of Africa speaking a Bantu language
* Bantu knots, a type of African hairstyle
* Black Association for Nationa ...
idea of
'Force',
Négritude,
Pan-Africanism
Pan-Africanism is a worldwide movement that aims to encourage and strengthen bonds of solidarity between all Indigenous and diaspora peoples of African ancestry. Based on a common goal dating back to the Atlantic slave trade, the movement exte ...
and
Ubuntu
Ubuntu ( ) is a Linux distribution based on Debian and composed mostly of free and open-source software. Ubuntu is officially released in three editions: '' Desktop'', ''Server'', and ''Core'' for Internet of things devices and robots. All the ...
. Contemporary African thought has also seen the development of Professional philosophy and of
Africana philosophy
Africana philosophy is the work of philosophers of African descent and others whose work deals with the subject matter of the African diaspora. The name does not refer to a particular philosophy, philosophical system, method, or tradition. Rather ...
, the philosophical literature of the
African diaspora
The African diaspora is the worldwide collection of communities descended from native Africans or people from Africa, predominantly in the Americas. The term most commonly refers to the descendants of the West and Central Africans who were ...
which includes currents such as
black existentialism Black existentialism or Africana critical theory is a school of thought that "critiques domination and affirms the empowerment of Black people in the world".Magnus O. Bassey"What Is Africana Critical Theory or Black Existential Philosophy?" in: ''Jo ...
by
African-Americans
African Americans (also referred to as Black Americans and Afro-Americans) are an ethnic group consisting of Americans with partial or total ancestry from sub-Saharan Africa. The term "African American" generally denotes descendants of enslav ...
. Some modern African thinkers have been influenced by
Marxism,
African-American literature
African American literature is the body of literature produced in the United States by writers of African descent. It begins with the works of such late 18th-century writers as Phillis Wheatley. Before the high point of slave narratives, African-A ...
,
Critical theory,
Critical race theory
Critical race theory (CRT) is a cross-disciplinary examination, by social and civil-rights scholars and activists, of how laws, social and political movements, and media shape, and are shaped by, social conceptions of race and ethnicity. Go ...
,
Postcolonialism and
Feminism.
Indigenous American philosophy
Indigenous-American philosophical thought consists of a wide variety of beliefs and traditions among different American cultures. Among some of
U.S. Native American communities, there is a belief in a metaphysical principle called the '
Great Spirit
The Great Spirit is the concept of a life force, a Supreme Being or god known more specifically as Wakan Tanka in Lakota,Ostler, Jeffry. ''The Plains Sioux and U.S. Colonialism from Lewis and Clark to Wounded Knee''. Cambridge University Press ...
' (
Siouan: ''
wakȟáŋ tȟáŋka'';
Algonquian:
''gitche manitou''). Another widely shared concept was that of ''
orenda
Orenda is the Iroquois name for a certain spiritual energy inherent in people and their environment. It is an "extraordinary invisible power believed by the Iroquois Native Americans to pervade in varying degrees in all animate and inanimate n ...
'' ('spiritual power'). According to Whiteley (1998), for the Native Americans, "mind is critically informed by transcendental experience (dreams, visions and so on) as well as by reason."
The practices to access these transcendental experiences are termed ''
shamanism''. Another feature of the indigenous American worldviews was their extension of ethics to non-human animals and plants.
In
Mesoamerica,
Nahua philosophy was an intellectual tradition developed by individuals called ''
tlamatini
''Tlamatini'' (plural ''tlamatinime'') is a Nahuatl language word meaning "someone who knows something", generally translated as "wise man". The word is analyzable as derived from the transitive verb ''mati'' "to know" with the prefix ''tla-'' in ...
'' ('those who know something') and its ideas are preserved in various
Aztec codices
Aztec codices ( nah, Mēxihcatl āmoxtli , sing. ''codex'') are Mesoamerican manuscripts made by the pre-Columbian Aztec, and their Nahuatl-speaking descendants during the colonial period in Mexico.
History
Before the start of the Sp ...
and fragmentary texts. Some of these philosophers are known by name, such as
Nezahualcoyotl Nezahualcoyotl may refer to:
* Nezahualcoyotl (tlatoani), the ruler of Texcoco
* Ciudad Nezahualcóyotl, a city in the State of Mexico
* Nezahualcóyotl metro station, in Mexico City
* The Nezahualcóyotl Award, a literary prize in Mexico
* Neza ...
,
Aquiauhtzin,
Xayacamach Xayacamach of Tizatlan was an Aztec poet from the Pre-Columbian state of Tlaxcallan, born between 1450 and 1455.
He was the son of the "Señor de Aztahua de Tizatlan" (Lord of Aztahua of Tizatlan). He took his father's place as governor, and ass ...
,
Tochihuitzin coyolchiuhqui and Cuauhtencoztli.
These authors were also poets and some of their work has survived in the original
Nahuatl.
Aztec philosophers developed theories of metaphysics, epistemology, values, and aesthetics. Aztec ethics was focused on seeking ''tlamatiliztli'' ('knowledge', 'wisdom') which was based on moderation and balance in all actions as in the
Nahua
The Nahuas () are a group of the indigenous people of Mexico, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, and Nicaragua. They comprise the largest indigenous group in Mexico and second largest in El Salvador. The Mexica (Aztecs) were of Nahua ethnicity, a ...
proverb "the middle good is necessary".
The Nahua worldview posited the concept of an ultimate universal energy or force called ''
Ōmeteōtl
() ("Two gods") is a name used to refer to the pair of Aztec deities and , also known as and . translates as "two" or "dual" in Nahuatl and translates as "god". The existence of such a concept and its significance is a matter of dispute am ...
'' ('Dual Cosmic Energy') which sought a way to live in balance with a constantly changing, "slippery" world. The theory of ''
Teotl
Teotl () is a Nahuatl term for sacredness or divinity that is sometimes translated as "god". For the Aztecs was the metaphysical omnipresence upon which their religious philosophy was based.
As described by James Maffie, "is essentially power: ...
'' can be seen as a form of
Pantheism.
According to James Maffie, Nahua metaphysics posited that teotl is "a single, vital, dynamic, vivifying, eternally self-generating and self-conceiving as well as self-regenerating and self-reconceiving sacred energy or force".
This force was seen as the all-encompassing life force of the universe and as the universe itself.
The
Inca civilization
The Incas were most notable for establishing the Inca Empire in Pre-Columbian America, which was centered in modern day South America in Peru and Chile. It was about 2,500 miles from the northern to southern tip. The civilization lasted from 14 ...
also had an elite class of philosopher-scholars termed the ''amawtakuna'' or ''amautas'' who were important in the
Inca education system as teachers of philosophy, theology, astronomy, poetry, law, music, morality and history.
Young Inca nobles were educated in these disciplines at the state college of Yacha-huasi in
Cuzco
Cusco, often spelled Cuzco (; qu, Qusqu ()), is a city in Southeastern Peru near the Urubamba Valley of the Andes mountain range. It is the capital of the Cusco Region and of the Cusco Province. The city is the seventh most populous in Peru ...
, where they also learned the art of the
quipu.
Incan philosophy (as well as the broader category of Andean thought) held that the universe is animated by a single dynamic life force (sometimes termed ''camaquen'' or ''camac'', as well as ''upani'' and ''amaya'').
This singular force also arises as a set of dual complementary yet opposite forces.
These "complementary opposites" are called
yanantin
Yanantin is one of the best known and most defining characteristics of indigenous South American Andean thought and exemplifies Andean adherence to a philosophical model based in what is often referred to as a " dualism of complementary terms" or ...
and
masintin. They are expressed as various polarities or dualities (such as male–female, dark–light, life and death, above and below) which interdependently contribute to the harmonious whole that is the universe through the process of reciprocity and mutual exchange called ''ayni''.
The Inca worldview also included the belief in a
creator God (
Viracocha
Viracocha is the great creator deity in the pre-Inca and Inca mythology in the Andes region of South America. Full name and some spelling alternatives are Wiracocha, Apu Qun Tiqsi Wiraqutra, and Con-Tici (also spelled Kon-Tiki, the source of the ...
) and
reincarnation
Reincarnation, also known as rebirth or transmigration, is the philosophical or religious concept that the non-physical essence of a living being begins a new life in a different physical form or body after biological death. Resurrection is a ...
.
Branches of philosophy
Philosophical questions can be grouped into various branches. These groupings allow philosophers to focus on a set of similar topics and interact with other thinkers who are interested in the same questions.
These divisions are neither exhaustive nor mutually exclusive. (A philosopher might specialize in
Kantian epistemology, or
Platonic aesthetics, or modern political philosophy). Furthermore, these philosophical inquiries sometimes overlap with each other and with other inquiries such as science, religion or mathematics.
Aesthetics
Aesthetics is the "critical reflection on art, culture and
nature
Nature, in the broadest sense, is the physical world or universe. "Nature" can refer to the phenomena of the physical world, and also to life in general. The study of nature is a large, if not the only, part of science. Although humans are p ...
". It addresses the nature of
art
Art is a diverse range of human activity, and resulting product, that involves creative or imaginative talent expressive of technical proficiency, beauty, emotional power, or conceptual ideas.
There is no generally agreed definition of wha ...
,
beauty
Beauty is commonly described as a feature of objects that makes these objects pleasurable to perceive. Such objects include landscapes, sunsets, humans and works of art. Beauty, together with art and taste, is the main subject of aesthetics, o ...
and
taste, enjoyment, emotional values, perception and the creation and appreciation of beauty. It is more precisely defined as the study of
sensory or sensori-emotional values, sometimes called
judgments of
sentiment and taste. Its major divisions are art theory,
literary theory,
film theory and
music theory. An example from art theory is to discern the set of principles underlying the work of a particular artist or artistic movement such as the
Cubist
Cubism is an early-20th-century avant-garde art movement that revolutionized European painting and sculpture, and inspired related movements in music, literature and architecture. In Cubist artwork, objects are analyzed, broken up and reassemble ...
aesthetic.
Ethics
Ethics, also known as moral philosophy, studies what constitutes good and bad
conduct, right and
wrong
A wrong (from Old English – 'crooked') is an act that is illegal or immoral. Legal wrongs are usually quite clearly defined in the law of a state and/or jurisdiction. They can be divided into civil wrongs and crimes (or ''criminal offenses'') ...
values
In ethics and social sciences, value denotes the degree of importance of something or action, with the aim of determining which actions are best to do or what way is best to live (normative ethics in ethics), or to describe the significance of dif ...
, and
good and evil. Its primary investigations include exploring how to live a good life and identifying standards of
morality. It also includes investigating whether there ''is'' a best way to live or a universal moral standard, and if so, how we come to learn about it. The main branches of ethics are
normative ethics,
meta-ethics
In metaphilosophy and ethics, meta-ethics is the study of the nature, scope, and meaning of moral judgment. It is one of the three branches of ethics generally studied by philosophers, the others being normative ethics (questions of how one o ...
and
applied ethics
Applied ethics refers to the practical aspect of moral considerations. It is ethics with respect to real-world actions and their moral considerations in the areas of private and public life, the professions, health, technology, law, and leadersh ...
.
The three main views in ethics about what constitute moral actions are:
*
Consequentialism
In ethical philosophy, consequentialism is a class of normative, teleological ethical theories that holds that the consequences of one's conduct are the ultimate basis for judgment about the rightness or wrongness of that conduct. Thus, from a ...
, which judges actions based on their consequences.
One such view is
utilitarianism, which judges actions based on the net happiness (or pleasure) and/or lack of suffering (or pain) that they produce.
*
Deontology, which judges actions based on whether they are in accordance with one's moral duty.
In the standard form defended by
Immanuel Kant, deontology is concerned with whether a choice respects the moral agency of other people, regardless of its consequences.
*
Virtue ethics
Virtue ethics (also aretaic ethics, from Greek ἀρετή arete_(moral_virtue).html"_;"title="'arete_(moral_virtue)">aretḗ''_is_an_approach_to_ethics_that_treats_the_concept_of_virtue.html" ;"title="arete_(moral_virtue)">aretḗ''.html" ;" ...
, which judges actions based on the moral character of the agent who performs them and whether they conform to what an ideally virtuous agent would do.
Epistemology
Epistemology is the branch of philosophy that studies
knowledge.
Epistemologists examine putative sources of knowledge, including
perceptual experience
Experience refers to conscious events in general, more specifically to perceptions, or to the practical knowledge and familiarity that is produced by these conscious processes. Understood as a conscious event in the widest sense, experience involv ...
,
reason,
memory, and
testimony. They also investigate questions about the nature of
truth,
belief
A belief is an attitude that something is the case, or that some proposition is true. In epistemology, philosophers use the term "belief" to refer to attitudes about the world which can be either true or false. To believe something is to take ...
,
justification, and
rationality.
Philosophical skepticism, which raises doubts about some or all claims to knowledge, has been a topic of interest throughout the history of philosophy. It arose early in
Pre-Socratic philosophy and became formalized with
Pyrrho, the founder of the
earliest Western school of philosophical skepticism. It features prominently in the works of modern philosophers
René Descartes and
David Hume and has remained a central topic in contemporary epistemological debates.
One of the most notable epistemological debates is between
empiricism and
rationalism
In philosophy, rationalism is the epistemological view that "regards reason as the chief source and test of knowledge" or "any view appealing to reason as a source of knowledge or justification".Lacey, A.R. (1996), ''A Dictionary of Philosophy'' ...
.
Empiricism places emphasis on observational evidence via sensory experience as the source of knowledge.
Empiricism is associated with
a posteriori knowledge, which is obtained through experience (such as
scientific knowledge).
Rationalism places emphasis on reason as a source of knowledge.
Rationalism is associated with
a priori knowledge
("from the earlier") and ("from the later") are Latin phrases used in philosophy to distinguish types of knowledge, justification, or argument by their reliance on empirical evidence or experience. knowledge is independent from current ex ...
, which is independent of experience (such as
logic and
mathematics).
One central debate in contemporary epistemology is about the conditions required for a
belief
A belief is an attitude that something is the case, or that some proposition is true. In epistemology, philosophers use the term "belief" to refer to attitudes about the world which can be either true or false. To believe something is to take ...
to constitute knowledge, which might include
truth and
justification. This debate was largely the result of attempts to solve the
Gettier problem
The Gettier problem, in the field of epistemology, is a landmark philosophical problem concerning the understanding of descriptive knowledge. Attributed to American philosopher Edmund Gettier, Gettier-type counterexamples (called "Gettier-cases") ...
.
Another common subject of contemporary debates is the
regress problem
In epistemology, the regress argument is the argument that any proposition requires a justification. However, any justification itself requires support. This means that any proposition whatsoever can be endlessly (infinitely) questioned, result ...
, which occurs when trying to offer proof or justification for any belief, statement, or proposition. The problem is that whatever the source of justification may be, that source must either be without justification (in which case it must be treated as an arbitrary
foundation
Foundation may refer to:
* Foundation (nonprofit), a type of charitable organization
** Foundation (United States law), a type of charitable organization in the U.S.
** Private foundation, a charitable organization that, while serving a good cause ...
for belief), or it must have some further justification (in which case justification must either be the result of
circular reasoning
Circular may refer to:
* The shape of a circle
* ''Circular'' (album), a 2006 album by Spanish singer Vega
* Circular letter (disambiguation)
** Flyer (pamphlet), a form of advertisement
* Circular reasoning, a type of logical fallacy
* Circula ...
, as in
coherentism
In philosophical epistemology, there are two types of coherentism: the coherence theory of truth; and the coherence theory of justification (also known as epistemic coherentism).
Coherent truth is divided between an anthropological approach, whi ...
, or the result of an
infinite regress
An infinite regress is an infinite series of entities governed by a recursive principle that determines how each entity in the series depends on or is produced by its predecessor. In the epistemic regress, for example, a belief is justified bec ...
, as in
infinitism).
Metaphysics
Metaphysics is the study of the most general features of
reality
Reality is the sum or aggregate of all that is real or existent within a system, as opposed to that which is only imaginary. The term is also used to refer to the ontological status of things, indicating their existence. In physical terms, rea ...
, such as
existence,
time,
objects
Object may refer to:
General meanings
* Object (philosophy), a thing, being, or concept
** Object (abstract), an object which does not exist at any particular time or place
** Physical object, an identifiable collection of matter
* Goal, an ai ...
and their
properties
Property is the ownership of land, resources, improvements or other tangible objects, or intellectual property.
Property may also refer to:
Mathematics
* Property (mathematics)
Philosophy and science
* Property (philosophy), in philosophy and ...
, wholes and their parts, events, processes and
causation and the relationship between
mind and
body
Body may refer to:
In science
* Physical body, an object in physics that represents a large amount, has mass or takes up space
* Body (biology), the physical material of an organism
* Body plan, the physical features shared by a group of animal ...
. Metaphysics includes
cosmology
Cosmology () is a branch of physics and metaphysics dealing with the nature of the universe. The term ''cosmology'' was first used in English in 1656 in Thomas Blount's ''Glossographia'', and in 1731 taken up in Latin by German philosopher ...
, the study of the
world in its entirety and
ontology
In metaphysics, ontology is the philosophical study of being, as well as related concepts such as existence, becoming, and reality.
Ontology addresses questions like how entities are grouped into categories and which of these entities ex ...
, the study of
being
In metaphysics, ontology is the philosophical study of being, as well as related concepts such as existence, becoming, and reality.
Ontology addresses questions like how entities are grouped into categories and which of these entities exi ...
, along with the
philosophy of space and time
Philosophy of space and time is the branch of philosophy concerned with the issues surrounding the ontology and epistemology of space and time. While such ideas have been central to philosophy from its inception, the philosophy of space and time wa ...
.
A major point of debate is between
realism, which holds that there are entities that exist independently of their mental perception, and
idealism, which holds that reality is mentally constructed or otherwise immaterial. Metaphysics deals with the topic of
identity
Identity may refer to:
* Identity document
* Identity (philosophy)
* Identity (social science)
* Identity (mathematics)
Arts and entertainment Film and television
* ''Identity'' (1987 film), an Iranian film
* ''Identity'' (2003 film), an ...
.
Essence is the set of attributes that make an object what it fundamentally is and without which it loses its identity, while
accident
An accident is an unintended, normally unwanted event that was not directly caused by humans. The term ''accident'' implies that nobody should be blamed, but the event may have been caused by unrecognized or unaddressed risks. Most researcher ...
is a property that the object has, without which the object can still retain its identity.
Particulars are objects that are said to exist in space and time, as opposed to
abstract object
In metaphysics, the distinction between abstract and concrete refers to a divide between two types of entities. Many philosophers hold that this difference has fundamental metaphysical significance. Examples of concrete objects include plants, hum ...
s, such as numbers, and
universals
In metaphysics, a universal is what particular things have in common, namely characteristics or qualities. In other words, universals are repeatable or recurrent entities that can be instantiated or exemplified by many particular things. For exa ...
, which are properties held by multiple particulars, such as redness or a gender. The type of existence, if any, of universals and abstract objects is an issue of debate.
Logic
Logic is the study of reasoning and argument.
Deductive reasoning is when, given certain premises, conclusions are
unavoidably implied.
Rules of inference
In the philosophy of logic, a rule of inference, inference rule or transformation rule is a logical form consisting of a function which takes premises, analyzes their syntax, and returns a conclusion (or conclusions). For example, the rule of in ...
are used to infer conclusions such as,
modus ponens, where given "A” and "If A then B", then "B” must be concluded.
Because sound reasoning is an essential element of all sciences, social sciences and humanities disciplines, logic became a
formal science. Sub-fields include
mathematical logic,
philosophical logic
Understood in a narrow sense, philosophical logic is the area of logic that studies the application of logical methods to philosophical problems, often in the form of extended logical systems like modal logic. Some theorists conceive philosophical ...
,
modal logic
Modal logic is a collection of formal systems developed to represent statements about necessity and possibility. It plays a major role in philosophy of language, epistemology, metaphysics, and natural language semantics. Modal logics extend other ...
,
computational logic
Computational logic is the use of logic to perform or reason about computation. It bears a similar relationship to computer science and engineering as mathematical logic bears to mathematics and as philosophical logic bears to philosophy. It is ...
and
non-classical logic Non-classical logics (and sometimes alternative logics) are formal systems that differ in a significant way from standard logical systems such as propositional and predicate logic. There are several ways in which this is done, including by way of ...
s. A major question in the
philosophy of mathematics
The philosophy of mathematics is the branch of philosophy that studies the assumptions, foundations, and implications of mathematics. It aims to understand the nature and methods of mathematics, and find out the place of mathematics in people ...
is whether mathematical entities are objective and discovered, called mathematical realism, or invented, called mathematical antirealism.
Mind and language
Philosophy of language explores the nature, origins, and use of language.
Philosophy of mind explores the nature of the
mind and its relationship to the body, as typified by disputes between
materialism
Materialism is a form of philosophical monism which holds matter to be the fundamental substance in nature, and all things, including mental states and consciousness, are results of material interactions. According to philosophical materialism ...
and
dualism. In recent years, this branch has become related to
cognitive science.
Philosophy of science
The
philosophy of science explores the foundations, methods, history, implications and purpose of science. Many of its subdivisions correspond to specific branches of science. For example,
philosophy of biology deals specifically with the metaphysical, epistemological and ethical issues in the biomedical and life sciences.
Political philosophy
Political philosophy is the study of
government and the relationship of individuals (or families and clans) to communities including the
state. It includes questions about justice, law, property and the rights and obligations of the citizen. Political philosophy, ethics, and aesthetics are traditionally linked subjects, under the general heading of
value theory as they involve a normative or evaluative aspect.
Philosophy of religion
Philosophy of religion deals with questions that involve
religion and religious ideas from a philosophically neutral perspective (as opposed to
theology which begins from religious convictions). Traditionally, religious questions were not seen as a separate field from philosophy proper, and the idea of a separate field only arose in the 19th century.
Issues include the
existence of God
The existence of God (or more generally, the existence of deities) is a subject of debate in theology, philosophy of religion and popular culture. A wide variety of arguments for and against the existence of God or deities can be categorize ...
, the relationship between reason and
faith, questions of
religious epistemology, the
relationship between religion and science
The relationship between religion and science involves discussions that interconnect the study of the natural world, history, philosophy, and theology. Even though the ancient and medieval worlds did not have conceptions resembling the modern u ...
, how to interpret
religious experiences
A religious experience (sometimes known as a spiritual experience, sacred experience, or mystical experience) is a subjective experience which is interpreted within a religious framework. The concept originated in the 19th century, as a defense ...
, questions about the possibility of an
afterlife
The afterlife (also referred to as life after death) is a purported existence in which the essential part of an individual's identity or their stream of consciousness continues to live after the death of their physical body. The surviving e ...
, the
problem of religious language
The problem of religious language considers whether it is possible to talk about God meaningfully if the traditional conceptions of God as being incorporeal, infinite, and timeless, are accepted. Because these traditional conceptions of God make ...
and the existence of
souls and responses to
religious pluralism
Religious pluralism is an attitude or policy regarding the diversity of religious belief systems co-existing in society. It can indicate one or more of the following:
* Recognizing and tolerating the religious diversity of a society or count ...
and diversity.
Metaphilosophy
Metaphilosophy explores the aims, boundaries and methods of philosophy. It is debated as to whether metaphilosophy is a subject that comes prior to philosophy or whether it is inherently part of philosophy.
Other subdivisions
In section thirteen of his
''Lives and Opinions of the Eminent Philosophers'', the oldest surviving history of philosophy (3rd century),
Diogenes Laërtius
Diogenes Laërtius ( ; grc-gre, Διογένης Λαέρτιος, ; ) was a biographer of the Greek philosophers. Nothing is definitively known about his life, but his surviving ''Lives and Opinions of Eminent Philosophers'' is a principal sourc ...
presents a three-part division of ancient Greek philosophical inquiry:
*
Natural philosophy (i.e. physics, from ) was the study of the constitution and processes of transformation in the physical world.
*
Moral philosophy
Ethics or moral philosophy is a branch of philosophy that "involves systematizing, defending, and recommending concepts of right and wrong behavior".''Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy'' The field of ethics, along with aesthetics, concerns ma ...
(i.e. ethics, from ) was the study of goodness, right and wrong, justice and virtue.
*
Metaphysical philosophy (i.e. logic, from ) was the study of
existence, causation,
God
In monotheistic thought, God is usually viewed as the supreme being, creator, and principal object of faith. Swinburne, R.G. "God" in Honderich, Ted. (ed)''The Oxford Companion to Philosophy'', Oxford University Press, 1995. God is typically ...
,
logic,
forms
Form is the shape, visual appearance, or configuration of an object. In a wider sense, the form is the way something happens.
Form also refers to:
*Form (document), a document (printed or electronic) with spaces in which to write or enter data
* ...
, and other abstract objects. ()
In ''Against the Logicians'' the
Pyrrhonist
Pyrrho of Elis (; grc, Πύρρων ὁ Ἠλεῖος, Pyrrhо̄n ho Ēleios; ), born in Elis, Greece, was a Greek philosopher of Classical antiquity, credited as being the first Greek skeptic philosopher and founder of Pyrrhonism.
Life
...
philosopher
Sextus Empiricus detailed the variety of ways in which the ancient Greek philosophers had divided philosophy, noting that this three-part division was agreed to by Plato, Aristotle, Xenocrates, and the Stoics. The
Academic Skeptic philosopher
Cicero
Marcus Tullius Cicero ( ; ; 3 January 106 BC – 7 December 43 BC) was a Roman statesman, lawyer, scholar, philosopher, and academic skeptic, who tried to uphold optimate principles during the political crises that led to the esta ...
also followed this three-part division.
This division is not obsolete, but has changed: ''natural philosophy'' has split into the various natural sciences, especially physics,
astronomy
Astronomy () is a natural science that studies celestial objects and phenomena. It uses mathematics, physics, and chemistry in order to explain their origin and evolution. Objects of interest include planets, moons, stars, nebulae, galax ...
,
chemistry,
biology
Biology is the scientific study of life. It is a natural science with a broad scope but has several unifying themes that tie it together as a single, coherent field. For instance, all organisms are made up of cells that process hereditary ...
, and
cosmology
Cosmology () is a branch of physics and metaphysics dealing with the nature of the universe. The term ''cosmology'' was first used in English in 1656 in Thomas Blount's ''Glossographia'', and in 1731 taken up in Latin by German philosopher ...
; ''moral philosophy'' has birthed the
social sciences, while still including
value theory (e.g. ethics,
aesthetics
Aesthetics, or esthetics, is a branch of philosophy that deals with the nature of beauty and taste, as well as the philosophy of art (its own area of philosophy that comes out of aesthetics). It examines aesthetic values, often expressed thr ...
,
political philosophy, etc.); and ''metaphysical philosophy'' has given way to formal sciences such as logic,
mathematics and
philosophy of science, while still including epistemology, cosmology, etc. For example,
Newton's ''
Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy
Mathematics is an area of knowledge that includes the topics of numbers, formulas and related structures, shapes and the spaces in which they are contained, and quantities and their changes. These topics are represented in modern mathematics ...
'' (1687), since classified as a book of physics, uses the term ''
natural philosophy'' as it was understood at the time, encompassing disciplines such as astronomy,
medicine and
physics that later became associated with
the sciences
''The Sciences'' was a magazine published from 1961 to 2001 by the New York Academy of Sciences. Each issue contained articles that discussed science issues with cultural relevance, illustrated with fine art and an occasional cartoon. The period ...
.
Methods of philosophy
Methods of philosophy are ways of conducting philosophical inquiry. They include techniques for arriving at philosophical knowledge and justifying philosophical claims as well as principles used for choosing between competing theories.
A great variety of methods has been employed throughout the history of philosophy. Many of them differ significantly from the methods used in the
natural sciences in that they do not use experimental data obtained through measuring equipment.
The choice of one's method usually has important implications both for how philosophical theories are constructed and for the arguments cited for or against them.
This choice is often guided by
epistemological considerations about what constitutes philosophical
evidence, how much support it offers, and how to acquire it.
Various disagreements on the level of philosophical theories have their source in methodological disagreements and the discovery of new methods has often had important consequences both for how philosophers conduct their research and for what claims they defend.
Some philosophers engage in most of their theorizing using one particular method while others employ a wider range of methods based on which one fits the specific problem investigated best.
Methodological skepticism
Cartesian doubt is a form of methodological skepticism associated with the writings and methodology of René Descartes (March 31, 1596Feb 11, 1650). Scruton, R.''Modern Philosophy: An Introduction and Survey''(London: Penguin Books, 1994). Leiber, ...
is a prominent method of philosophy. It aims to arrive at absolutely certain
first principles by using systematic
doubt to determine which principles of philosophy are indubitable. The geometrical method tries to build a comprehensive philosophical system based on a small set of such axioms. It does so with the help of
deductive reasoning to expand the certainty of its axioms to the system as a whole.
Phenomenologists
Phenomenology may refer to:
Art
* Phenomenology (architecture), based on the experience of building materials and their sensory properties
Philosophy
* Phenomenology (philosophy), a branch of philosophy which studies subjective experiences and a ...
seek certain knowledge about the realm of appearances. They do so by suspending their judgments about the external world in order to focus on how things appear independent of their underlying reality, a technique known as
epoché
Epoché ( ἐποχή ''epokhē'', "cessation") is an ancient Greek term. In Hellenistic philosophy it is a technical term typically translated as "suspension of judgment" but also as "withholding of assent". In the modern philosophy of Phenomen ...
.
Conceptual analysis
Philosophical analysis is any of various techniques, typically used by philosophers in the analytic tradition, in order to "break down" (i.e. analyze) philosophical issues. Arguably the most prominent of these techniques is the analysis of concep ...
is a well-known method in
analytic philosophy
Analytic philosophy is a branch and tradition of philosophy using analysis, popular in the Western world and particularly the Anglosphere, which began around the turn of the 20th century in the contemporary era in the United Kingdom, United Sta ...
. It aims to clarify the meaning of concepts by analyzing them into their fundamental constituents.
Another method often employed in analytic philosophy is based on
common sense
''Common Sense'' is a 47-page pamphlet written by Thomas Paine in 1775–1776 advocating independence from Great Britain to people in the Thirteen Colonies. Writing in clear and persuasive prose, Paine collected various moral and political argu ...
. It starts with commonly accepted
belief
A belief is an attitude that something is the case, or that some proposition is true. In epistemology, philosophers use the term "belief" to refer to attitudes about the world which can be either true or false. To believe something is to take ...
s and tries to draw interesting conclusions from them, which it often employs in a negative sense to criticize philosophical theories that are too far removed from how the average person sees the issue.
It is very similar to how
ordinary language philosophy tackles philosophical questions by investigating how
ordinary language
Ordinary language philosophy (OLP) is a philosophical methodology that sees traditional philosophical problems as rooted in misunderstandings philosophers develop by distorting or forgetting how words are ordinarily used to convey meaning in ...
is used.
Various methods in philosophy give particular importance to
intuition
Intuition is the ability to acquire knowledge without recourse to conscious reasoning. Different fields use the word "intuition" in very different ways, including but not limited to: direct access to unconscious knowledge; unconscious cognition; ...
s, i.e. non-inferential impressions about the correctness of specific claims or general principles.
For example, they play an important role in
thought experiments, which employ
counterfactual thinking
Counterfactual thinking is a concept in psychology that involves the human tendency to create possible alternatives to life events that have already occurred; something that is contrary to what actually happened. Counterfactual thinking is, as i ...
to evaluate the possible consequences of an imagined situation. These anticipated consequences can then be used to confirm or refute philosophical theories.
The method of
reflective equilibrium also employs intuitions. It seeks to form a
coherent position on a certain issue by examining all the relevant beliefs and intuitions, some of which often have to be deemphasized or reformulated in order to arrive at a coherent perspective.
Pragmatists
Pragmatism is a philosophical tradition that considers words and thought as tools and instruments for prediction, problem solving, and action, and rejects the idea that the function of thought is to describe, represent, or mirror reality. Pr ...
stress the significance of concrete practical consequences for assessing whether a philosophical theory is true or false.
Experimental philosophy
Experimental philosophy is an emerging field of philosophical inquiry Edmonds, David and Warburton, NigelPhilosophy’s great experiment, ''Prospect'', March 1, 2009 that makes use of empirical data—often gathered through surveys which probe ...
is of rather recent origin. Its methods differ from most other methods of philosophy in that it tries to answer philosophical questions by gathering empirical data in ways similar to
social psychology
Social psychology is the scientific study of how thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are influenced by the real or imagined presence of other people or by social norms. Social psychologists typically explain human behavior as a result of the re ...
and the
cognitive sciences.
Philosophical progress
Many philosophical debates that began in ancient times are still debated today. British philosopher
Colin McGinn
Colin McGinn (born 10 March 1950) is a British philosopher. He has held teaching posts and professorships at University College London, the University of Oxford, Rutgers University, and the University of Miami.
McGinn is best known for his work ...
claims that no
philosophical progress has occurred during that interval. Australian philosopher
David Chalmers, by contrast, sees progress in philosophy similar to that in science. Meanwhile,
Talbot Brewer
Talbot Brewer is an American philosopher and Professor of Philosophy at the University of Virginia. He is known for his works on moral philosophy.
Philosophy
Brewer is known for his idea of "dialectical activity," arguing that contemporary mor ...
, professor of philosophy at
University of Virginia, argues that "progress" is the wrong standard by which to judge philosophical activity.
Applied and professional philosophy
Some of those who study philosophy become professional philosophers, typically by working as
professor
Professor (commonly abbreviated as Prof.) is an Academy, academic rank at university, universities and other post-secondary education and research institutions in most countries. Literally, ''professor'' derives from Latin as a "person who pr ...
s who teach, research and write in academic institutions. However, most students of academic philosophy later contribute to law, journalism, religion, sciences, politics, business, or various arts.
For example, public figures who have degrees in philosophy include
comedians
Steve Martin and
Ricky Gervais, filmmaker
Terrence Malick
Terrence Frederick Malick (born November 30, 1943) is an American filmmaker. His films include ''Days of Heaven'' (1978), '' The Thin Red Line'' (1998), for which he received Academy Award nominations for Best Director and Best Adapted Screenplay ...
,
Pope John Paul II
Pope John Paul II ( la, Ioannes Paulus II; it, Giovanni Paolo II; pl, Jan Paweł II; born Karol Józef Wojtyła ; 18 May 19202 April 2005) was the head of the Catholic Church and sovereign of the Vatican City State from 1978 until his ...
, Wikipedia co-founder
Larry Sanger, technology entrepreneur
Peter Thiel, U.S. Supreme Court Justice
Stephen Breyer, ''
Jeopardy!'' host
Alex Trebek
George Alexander Trebek (; July 22, 1940 – November 8, 2020) was a Canadian-American game show host and television personality. He is best known for hosting the syndicated general knowledge quiz game show ''Jeopardy!'' for 37 season ...
, and US vice presidential candidate
Carly Fiorina
Cara Carleton "Carly" Fiorina (''née'' Sneed; born September 6, 1954) is an American businesswoman and politician, known primarily for her tenure as CEO of Hewlett-Packard (HP). As chief executive officer of HP from 1999 to 2005, Fiorina was ...
.
Curtis White has argued that philosophical tools are essential to humanities, sciences and social sciences.
Recent efforts to avail the general public to the work and relevance of philosophers include the million-dollar
Berggruen Prize, first awarded to
Charles Taylor in 2016. Some philosophers argue that this professionalization has negatively affected the discipline.
Women in philosophy
Although men have generally dominated philosophical discourse, women philosophers have engaged in the discipline throughout history. The list of female philosophers throughout history is vast.
Ancient
Ancient history is a time period from the beginning of writing and recorded human history to as far as late antiquity. The span of recorded history is roughly 5,000 years, beginning with the Sumerian cuneiform script. Ancient history cove ...
examples include
Hipparchia of Maroneia
Hipparchia of Maroneia (; el, Ἱππαρχία ἡ Μαρωνεῖτις; fl. c. 325 BC) was a Cynic philosopher, and wife of Crates of Thebes. She was the sister of Metrokles, the cynic philosopher.
She was born in Maroneia, but her family ...
(active ) and
Arete of Cyrene
Arete of Cyrene (; el, Ἀρήτη; fl. 5th–4th century BC) was a Cyrenaic philosopher who lived in Cyrene, Libya. She was the daughter of Aristippus of Cyrene.
Life and teachings
Arete learned philosophy from her father, Aristippus, who had ...
(active 5th–4th centuries BCE). Some women philosophers were accepted during the
medieval and
modern
Modern may refer to:
History
*Modern history
** Early Modern period
** Late Modern period
*** 18th century
*** 19th century
*** 20th century
** Contemporary history
* Moderns, a faction of Freemasonry that existed in the 18th century
Philosophy ...
eras, but none became part of the
Western canon until the
20th and 21st century, when many suggest that
G.E.M. Anscombe
Gertrude Elizabeth Margaret Anscombe (; 18 March 1919 – 5 January 2001), usually cited as G. E. M. Anscombe or Elizabeth Anscombe, was a British analytic philosopher. She wrote on the philosophy of mind, philosophy of action, ...
,
Hannah Arendt
Hannah Arendt (, , ; 14 October 1906 – 4 December 1975) was a political philosopher, author, and Holocaust survivor. She is widely considered to be one of the most influential political theorists of the 20th century.
Arendt was born ...
,
Bell Hooks
Gloria Jean Watkins (September 25, 1952December 15, 2021), better known by her pen name bell hooks, was an American author and social activist who was Distinguished Professor in Residence at Berea College. She is best known for her writings o ...
,
Simone de Beauvoir,
Simone Weil and
Susanne Langer
Susanne Katherina Langer (; ''née'' Knauth; December 20, 1895 – July 17, 1985) was an American philosopher, writer, and educator known for her theories on the influences of art on the mind. She was one of the earliest American women to achieve ...
entered the canon.
In the early 1800s, some colleges and universities in the UK and the US began
admitting women, producing more female academics. Nevertheless,
U.S. Department of Education
The United States Department of Education is a Cabinet-level department of the United States government. It began operating on May 4, 1980, having been created after the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare was split into the Department ...
reports from the 1990s indicate that few women ended up in philosophy and that philosophy is one of the least gender-proportionate fields in the
humanities, with women making up somewhere between 17% and 30% of philosophy faculty according to some studies.
["Salary, Promotion, and Tenure Status of Minority and Women Faculty in U.S. Colleges and Universities." National Center for Education Statistics, Statistical Analysis Report, March 2000; U.S. Department of Education, Office of Education Research and Improvement, Report # NCES 2000–173; 1993 National Study of Postsecondary Faculty (NSOPF:93). See also "Characteristics and Attitudes of Instructional Faculty and Staff in the Humanities." National Center For Education Statistics, E.D. Tabs, July 1997. U.S. Department of Education, Office of Education Research and Improvement, Report # NCES 97-973;1993 National Study of Postsecondary Faculty (NSOPF-93).]
Prominent 21st century philosophers include:
Judith Butler
Judith Pamela Butler (born February 24, 1956) is an American philosopher and gender theorist whose work has influenced political philosophy, ethics, and the fields of third-wave feminism, queer theory, and literary theory. In 1993, Butler b ...
,
Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak,
Martha Nussbaum
Martha Craven Nussbaum (; born May 6, 1947) is an American philosopher and the current Ernst Freund Distinguished Service Professor of Law and Ethics at the University of Chicago, where she is jointly appointed in the law school and the philosoph ...
,
Onora O'Neill, and
Nancy Fraser
Nancy Fraser (; born May 20, 1947) is an American philosopher, critical theorist, feminist, and the Henry A. and Louise Loeb Professor of Political and Social Science and professor of philosophy at The New School in New York City.Jadžić, Milo ...
.
See also
*
List of important publications in philosophy
*
List of years in philosophy
The following entries cover events related to the study of philosophy which occurred in the listed year or century.
Centuries
* 11th century in philosophy
* 12th century in philosophy
* 13th century in philosophy
* 14th century in philosophy
* 15 ...
*
List of philosophy journals
*
List of philosophy awards
*
List of unsolved problems in philosophy
*
Lists of philosophers
This is a list of lists of philosophers, organized by subarea, nationality, religion, and time period.
Lists of philosophers by subfield
* List of aestheticians
* List of critical theorists
* List of environmental philosophers
* List of epist ...
*
Social theory
*
Systems theory
References
Notes
Citations
Bibliography
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
Further reading
General introduction
*
* Blumenau, Ralph. ''Philosophy and Living''.
*
Craig, Edward. ''Philosophy: A Very Short Introduction''.
* Harrison-Barbet, Anthony, ''Mastering Philosophy''.
*
Russell, Bertrand.
The Problems of Philosophy'.
* Sinclair, Alistair J. ''What is Philosophy? An Introduction'', 2008,
*
Sober, Elliott. (2001). ''Core Questions in Philosophy: A Text with Readings''. Upper Saddle River, Prentice Hall.
*
Solomon, Robert C. ''Big Questions: A Short Introduction to Philosophy''.
*
Warburton, Nigel. ''Philosophy: The Basics''.
* Nagel, Thomas. ''What Does It All Mean? A Very Short Introduction to Philosophy''.
* ''Classics of Philosophy (Vols. 1, 2, & 3)'' by Louis P. Pojman
* Cottingham, John. Western Philosophy: An Anthology. 2nd ed. Malden, MA: Blackwell Pub., 2008. Print. Blackwell Philosophy Anthologies.
*
Tarnas, Richard. ''The Passion of the Western Mind: Understanding the Ideas That Have Shaped Our World View''.
Topical introductions
African
* Imbo, Samuel Oluoch. ''An Introduction to African Philosophy.''
Eastern
* ''A Source Book in Indian Philosophy'' by Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, Charles A. Moore
* Hamilton, Sue. ''Indian Philosophy: a Very Short Introduction''.
* Kupperman, Joel J. ''Classic Asian Philosophy: A Guide to the Essential Texts''.
* Lee, Joe and Powell, Jim. ''Eastern Philosophy For Beginners''.
* Smart, Ninian. ''World Philosophies''.
* Copleston, Frederick. ''Philosophy in Russia: From Herzen to Lenin and Berdyaev''.
Islamic
* ''Medieval Islamic Philosophical Writings'' edited by Muhammad Ali Khalidi
*
*
*
Historical introductions
General
* First published in Russian as .
*
Higgins, Kathleen M. and
Solomon, Robert C. ''A Short History of Philosophy''.
*
Durant, Will, ''Story of Philosophy: The Lives and Opinions of the World's Greatest Philosophers'', Pocket, 1991,
* First published in Russian as .
Ancient
* Knight, Kelvin. ''Aristotelian Philosophy: Ethics and Politics from Aristotle to MacIntyre''.
Medieval
* ''The Phenomenology Reader'' by Dermot Moran, Timothy Mooney
* Kim, J. and Ernest Sosa, Ed. (1999). ''Metaphysics: An Anthology''. Blackwell Philosophy Anthologies. Oxford, Blackwell Publishers Ltd.
*
Modern and contemporary
* ''The English Philosophers from Bacon to Mill'' by Edwin Arthur
* ''European Philosophers from Descartes to Nietzsche'' by Monroe Beardsley
* ''Existentialism: Basic Writings (Second Edition)'' by Charles Guignon, Derk Pereboom
* Curley, Edwin, ''A Spinoza Reader'', Princeton, 1994,
*
Bullock, Alan, R.B. Woodings, and John Cumming, ''eds''. ''The Fontana Dictionary of Modern Thinkers'', in series, ''Fontana Original
'. Hammersmith, Eng.: Fontana Press, 1992
983
Year 983 ( CMLXXXIII) was a common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.
Events
By place
Europe
* Summer – Diet of Verona: Emperor Otto II (the Red) declares war against the Byza ...
xxv, 867 p.
*
Scruton, Roger. ''A Short History of Modern Philosophy''.
* ''Contemporary Analytic Philosophy: Core Readings'' by James Baillie
*
Appiah, Kwame Anthony. ''Thinking it Through – An Introduction to Contemporary Philosophy'', 2003,
* Critchley, Simon. ''Continental Philosophy: A Very Short Introduction''.
Reference works
*
*
* ''The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy'' by Robert Audi
* ''The Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy'' (10 vols.) edited by Edward Craig,
Luciano Floridi (available online by subscription); or
* ''The Concise Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy'' edited by Edward Craig (an abridgement)
* ; in 1996, a ninth supplemental volume appeared that updated the classic 1967 encyclopedia.
* ''
International Directory of Philosophy and Philosophers
The International Directory of Philosophy is an online database containing information on university philosophy departments, research centers, professional societies, journals, and philosophy publishers in approximately 130 countries. It was establ ...
''. Charlottesville, Philosophy Documentation Center.
* ''
Directory of American Philosophers
The International Directory of Philosophy is an online database containing information on university philosophy departments, research centers, professional societies, journals, and philosophy publishers in approximately 130 countries. It was establ ...
''. Charlottesville, Philosophy Documentation Center.
* ''Routledge History of Philosophy'' (10 vols.) edited by John Marenbon
* ''History of Philosophy'' (9 vols.) by
Frederick Copleston
* ''A History of Western Philosophy'' (5 vols.) by
W.T. Jones
* ''History of Italian Philosophy'' (2 vols.) by
Eugenio Garin
Eugenio Garin (May 9, 1909 – December 29, 2004) was an Italian philosopher and Renaissance historian. He was recognised as an authority on the cultural history of the Renaissance. Born at Rieti, Garin studied philosophy at the University of Flore ...
. Translated from Italian and Edited by Giorgio Pinton. Introduction by Leon Pompa.
* ''Encyclopaedia of Indian Philosophies'' (8 vols.), edited by Karl H. Potter et al. (first 6 volumes out of print)
* ''Indian Philosophy'' (2 vols.) by
Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan
* ''A History of Indian Philosophy'' (5 vols.) by
Surendranath Dasgupta
* ''History of Chinese Philosophy'' (2 vols.) by Fung Yu-lan, Derk Bodde
* ''Instructions for Practical Living and Other Neo-Confucian Writings by Wang Yang-ming'' by Chan, Wing-tsit
* ''Encyclopedia of Chinese Philosophy'' edited by Antonio S. Cua
* ''Encyclopedia of Eastern Philosophy and Religion'' by Ingrid Fischer-Schreiber, Franz-Karl Ehrhard, Kurt Friedrichs
* ''Companion Encyclopedia of Asian Philosophy'' by Brian Carr, Indira Mahalingam
* ''A Concise Dictionary of Indian Philosophy: Sanskrit Terms Defined in English'' by John A. Grimes
* ''History of Islamic Philosophy'' edited by Seyyed Hossein Nasr, Oliver Leaman
* ''History of Jewish Philosophy'' edited by Daniel H. Frank, Oliver Leaman
* ''A History of Russian Philosophy: From the Tenth to the Twentieth Centuries'' by Valerii Aleksandrovich Kuvakin
* Ayer, A.J. et al., Ed. (1994) ''A Dictionary of Philosophical Quotations''. Blackwell Reference Oxford. Oxford, Basil Blackwell Ltd.
* Blackburn, S., Ed. (1996)''The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy''. Oxford, Oxford University Press.
* Mautner, T., Ed. ''The Penguin Dictionary of Philosophy''. London, Penguin Books.
*
* Angeles, P.A., Ed. (1992). ''The HarperCollins Dictionary of Philosophy''. New York, Harper Perennial.
*
* Hoffman, Eric, Ed. (1997) ''Guidebook for Publishing Philosophy''. Charlottesville, Philosophy Documentation Center.
* Popkin, R.H. (1999). ''The Columbia History of Western Philosophy''. New York, Columbia University Press.
* Bullock, Alan, and Oliver Stallybrass, ''jt. eds''. ''The Harper Dictionary of Modern Thought''. New York: Harper & Row, 1977. xix, 684 p. ''N.B''.: "First published in England under the title, ''The Fontana Dictionary of Modern Thought''."
*
Reese, W.L. ''Dictionary of Philosophy and Religion: Eastern and Western Thought''. Atlantic Highlands, N.J.: Humanities Press, 1980. iv, 644 p.
External links
''Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy''The ''Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy''Indiana Philosophy Ontology ProjectPhilPapers– a comprehensive directory of online philosophical articles and books by academic philosophers
*
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