The opposition surge (sometimes known as the opposition effect, opposition spike or Seeliger effect
) is the brightening of a rough surface, or an object with many
particle
In the physical sciences, a particle (or corpuscule in older texts) is a small localized object which can be described by several physical or chemical properties, such as volume, density, or mass.
They vary greatly in size or quantity, from s ...
s, when illuminated from directly behind the observer. The term is most widely used in
astronomy
Astronomy () is a natural science that studies celestial objects and phenomena. It uses mathematics, physics, and chemistry in order to explain their origin and evolution. Objects of interest include planets, moons, stars, nebulae, galax ...
, where generally it refers to the sudden noticeable increase in the brightness of a
celestial body
An astronomical object, celestial object, stellar object or heavenly body is a naturally occurring physical entity, association, or structure that exists in the observable universe. In astronomy, the terms ''object'' and ''body'' are often u ...
such as a
planet,
moon, or
comet
A comet is an icy, small Solar System body that, when passing close to the Sun, warms and begins to release gases, a process that is called outgassing. This produces a visible atmosphere or coma, and sometimes also a tail. These phenomena are ...
as its
phase angle of observation approaches zero. It is so named because the reflected light from the
Moon and
Mars appear significantly brighter than predicted by simple
Lambertian reflectance when at
astronomical opposition. Two physical mechanisms have been proposed for this observational phenomenon: shadow hiding and coherent backscatter.
Overview
The phase angle is defined as the angle between the observer, the observed object and the source of light. In the case of the Solar System, the light source is the Sun, and the observer is generally on Earth. At zero phase angle, the Sun is directly behind the observer and the object is directly ahead, fully illuminated.
As the phase angle of an object lit by the Sun decreases, the object's brightness rapidly increases. This is mainly due to the increased area lit, but is also partly due to the intrinsic brightness of the part that is sunlit. This is affected by such factors as the angle at which light reflected from the object is observed. For this reason, a full moon is more than twice as bright as the moon at first or third quarter, even though the visible area illuminated appears to be exactly twice as large.
Physical mechanisms
Shadow hiding
When the angle of reflection is close to the angle at which the light's rays hit the surface (that is, when the Sun and the object are close to
opposition from the viewpoint of the observer), this intrinsic brightness is usually close to its maximum. At a phase angle of zero degrees, all shadows disappear and the object is fully illuminated. When phase angles approach zero, there is a sudden increase in apparent brightness, and this sudden increase is referred to as the opposition surge.
The effect is particularly pronounced on
regolith surfaces of airless bodies in the
Solar System. The usual major cause of the effect is that a surface's small pores and pits that would otherwise be in shadow at other incidence angles become lit up when the observer is almost in the same line as the source of illumination. The effect is usually only visible for a very small range of
phase angles near zero. For bodies whose reflectance properties have been quantitatively studied, details of the opposition effect – its strength and angular extent – are described by two of the
Hapke parameters The Hapke parameters are a set of parameters for an empirical model that is commonly used to describe the directional reflectance properties of the airless regolith surfaces of bodies in the Solar System. The model has been developed by astronomer ...
. In the case of planetary rings (such as
Saturn's
Saturn is the sixth planet from the Sun and the second-largest in the Solar System, after Jupiter. It is a gas giant with an average radius of about nine and a half times that of Earth. It has only one-eighth the average density of Earth; h ...
), an opposition surge is due to the uncovering of shadows on the ring particles. This explanation was first proposed by
Hugo von Seeliger in 1887.
Coherent backscatter
A theory for an additional effect that increases brightness during opposition is that of coherent backscatter. In the case of coherent backscatter, the reflected light is enhanced at narrow angles if the size of the scatterers in the surface of the body is comparable to the wavelength of light and the distance between scattering particles is greater than a wavelength. The increase in brightness is due to the reflected light combining coherently with the emitted light.
Coherent backscatter phenomena have also been observed with
radar. In particular, recent observations of Titan at 2.2 cm with
Cassini have shown that a strong coherent backscatter effect is required to explain the high albedos at radar wavelengths.
Water droplets
On Earth, water droplets can also create bright spots around the
antisolar point
The antisolar point is the abstract point on the celestial sphere directly opposite the Sun from an observer's perspective. This means that the antisolar point lies above the horizon when the Sun is below it, and vice versa. On a sunny day, t ...
in various situations. For more details, see
Heiligenschein
(; ) is an optical phenomenon in which a bright spot appears around the shadow of the viewer's head in the presence of dew. In photogrammetry and remote sensing, it is more commonly known as the hotspot. It is also occasionally known as Cellini ...
and
Glory (optical phenomenon).
Throughout the Solar System
The existence of the opposition surge was described in 1956 by
Tom Gehrels
Anton M.J. "Tom" Gehrels (February 21, 1925 – July 11, 2011) was a Dutch–American astronomer, Professor of Planetary Sciences, and Astronomer at the University of Arizona, Tucson.
Biography
Youth and education
Gehrels was born at H ...
during his study of the reflected light from an
asteroid
An asteroid is a minor planet of the inner Solar System. Sizes and shapes of asteroids vary significantly, ranging from 1-meter rocks to a dwarf planet almost 1000 km in diameter; they are rocky, metallic or icy bodies with no atmosphere.
...
. Gehrels' later studies showed that the same effect could be shown in the moon's brightness. He coined the term "opposition effect" for the phenomenon, but the more intuitive "opposition surge" is now more widely used.
Since Gehrels' early studies, an opposition surge has been noted for most airless solar system bodies. No such surge has been reported for bodies with significant atmospheres.
In the case of the
Moon, B. J. Buratti ''et al.'' have suggested that its brightness increases by some 40% between a phase angle of 4° and one of 0°, and that this increase is greater for the rougher-surfaced highland areas than for the relatively smooth
maria
Maria may refer to:
People
* Mary, mother of Jesus
* Maria (given name), a popular given name in many languages
Place names Extraterrestrial
* 170 Maria, a Main belt S-type asteroid discovered in 1877
*Lunar maria (plural of ''mare''), large, d ...
. As for the principal mechanism of the phenomenon, measurements indicate that the opposition effect exhibits only a small wavelength dependence: the surge is 3-4% larger at 0.41 μm than at 1.00 μm. This result suggests that the principal cause of the lunar opposition surge is shadow-hiding rather than coherent backscatter.
[Burrati, B. J.; Hillier, J. K.; & Wang, M. (1996)]
The Lunar Opposition Surge: Observations by Clementine
. ''Icarus'' 124: 490-499.
See also
*
Albedo
Albedo (; ) is the measure of the diffuse reflection of sunlight, solar radiation out of the total solar radiation and measured on a scale from 0, corresponding to a black body that absorbs all incident radiation, to 1, corresponding to a body ...
*
Bidirectional reflectance function
The bidirectional reflectance distribution function (BRDF; f_(\omega_,\, \omega_) ) is a function of four real variables that defines how light is reflected at an opaque surface. It is employed in the optics of real-world light, in computer ...
*
Brocken spectre, the apparently enormous and magnified shadow of an observer cast upon the upper surfaces of clouds opposite the Sun
*
Gegenschein
*
Geometric albedo
In astronomy, the geometric albedo of a celestial body is the ratio of its actual brightness as seen from the light source (i.e. at zero phase angle) to that of an ''idealized'' flat, fully reflecting, diffusively scattering ( Lambertian) disk w ...
References
{{reflist
External links
Hayabusa observes the opposition surge of Asteroid Itokawa "Atmospheric optics" website. Includes a picture of the opposition surge on the moon
"Atmospheric optics" website. Diagrammatic representation of the opposition surge
"The-moon wikispaces" opposition surge pageOpposition surge on Saturn's B Ringas seen by
Cassini–Huygens
''Cassini–Huygens'' ( ), commonly called ''Cassini'', was a space-research mission by NASA, the European Space Agency (ESA), and the Italian Space Agency (ASI) to send a space probe to study the planet Saturn and its system, including its r ...
Astronomical events
Lunar science
Optical phenomena
Observational astronomy
Radiometry
Scattering, absorption and radiative transfer (optics)