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''Tusi'', often translated as "headmen" or "chieftains", were hereditary tribal leaders recognized as imperial officials by the Yuan,
Ming The Ming dynasty (), officially the Great Ming, was an imperial dynasty of China, ruling from 1368 to 1644 following the collapse of the Mongol-led Yuan dynasty. The Ming dynasty was the last orthodox dynasty of China ruled by the Han pe ...
, and
Qing The Qing dynasty ( ), officially the Great Qing,, was a Manchu-led imperial dynasty of China and the last orthodox dynasty in Chinese history. It emerged from the Later Jin dynasty founded by the Jianzhou Jurchens, a Tungusic-speak ...
dynasties of China, and the Later Lê and Nguyễn dynasties of Vietnam. They ruled certain ethnic minorities in southwest China and the
Indochinese peninsula Mainland Southeast Asia, also known as the Indochinese Peninsula or Indochina, is the continental portion of Southeast Asia. It lies east of the Indian subcontinent and south of Mainland China and is bordered by the Indian Ocean to the west an ...
nominally on behalf of the central government. This arrangement is known as the ''Tusi System'' or the ''Native Chieftain System'' (). It should not to be confused with the
Chinese tributary system The tributary system of China (), or Cefeng system () was a network of loose international relations focused on China which facilitated trade and foreign relations by acknowledging China's predominant role in East Asia. It involved multiple relati ...
or the
Jimi system The Jimi system () or Jimifuzhou () was an autonomous administrative and political organization system used in China between the 7th century and 10th century. It should not to be confused with the tributary system. The term "Jimi" was first seen ...
. ''Tusi'' were located primarily in
Yunnan Yunnan , () is a landlocked province in the southwest of the People's Republic of China. The province spans approximately and has a population of 48.3 million (as of 2018). The capital of the province is Kunming. The province borders the ...
,
Guizhou Guizhou (; Postal romanization, formerly Kweichow) is a landlocked Provinces of China, province in the Southwest China, southwest region of the China, People's Republic of China. Its capital and largest city is Guiyang, in the center of the pr ...
,
Tibet Tibet (; ''Böd''; ) is a region in East Asia, covering much of the Tibetan Plateau and spanning about . It is the traditional homeland of the Tibetan people. Also resident on the plateau are some other ethnic groups such as Monpa people, ...
,
Sichuan Sichuan (; zh, c=, labels=no, ; zh, p=Sìchuān; alternatively romanized as Szechuan or Szechwan; formerly also referred to as "West China" or "Western China" by Protestant missions) is a province in Southwest China occupying most of t ...
, Chongqing, the Xiangxi Prefecture of
Hunan Hunan (, ; ) is a landlocked province of the People's Republic of China, part of the South Central China region. Located in the middle reaches of the Yangtze watershed, it borders the province-level divisions of Hubei to the north, Jiangx ...
, and the Enshi Prefecture of
Hubei Hubei (; ; alternately Hupeh) is a landlocked province of the People's Republic of China, and is part of the Central China region. The name of the province means "north of the lake", referring to its position north of Dongting Lake. The p ...
. ''Tusi'' also existed in the historical dependencies of China in what is today northern
Myanmar Myanmar, ; UK pronunciations: US pronunciations incl. . Note: Wikipedia's IPA conventions require indicating /r/ even in British English although only some British English speakers pronounce r at the end of syllables. As John Wells explai ...
,
Laos Laos (, ''Lāo'' )), officially the Lao People's Democratic Republic ( Lao: ສາທາລະນະລັດ ປະຊາທິປະໄຕ ປະຊາຊົນລາວ, French: République démocratique populaire lao), is a socialist s ...
, and northern
Thailand Thailand ( ), historically known as Siam () and officially the Kingdom of Thailand, is a country in Southeast Asia, located at the centre of the Indochinese Peninsula, spanning , with a population of almost 70 million. The country is b ...
.
Vietnam Vietnam or Viet Nam ( vi, Việt Nam, ), officially the Socialist Republic of Vietnam,., group="n" is a country in Southeast Asia, at the eastern edge of mainland Southeast Asia, with an area of and population of 96 million, making ...
also implemented a ''Tusi'' system under the Later Lê and Nguyễn dynasties. In 2015,
UNESCO The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization is a List of specialized agencies of the United Nations, specialized agency of the United Nations (UN) aimed at promoting world peace and security through international coope ...
designated three ''Tusi'' castles ( Laosicheng, Tangya, and Hailongtun) as part of the "
Tusi Sites The Tusi Sites () refer to the three ancient Tusi sites in China that were designated by the UNESCO as World Heritage Sites on July 3, 2015. It is the 48th World Heritage Site in China. These sites are located in the mountains of Southwest China an ...
" World Heritage Site in China, owing to the unique system of governance. It has been described on at least one occasion as sharing similarities with the "U.S. federal government's recognition of some Native American tribes as in some ways sovereign entities."


History


Yuan dynasty

The ''tusi'' system was inspired by the
Jimi system The Jimi system () or Jimifuzhou () was an autonomous administrative and political organization system used in China between the 7th century and 10th century. It should not to be confused with the tributary system. The term "Jimi" was first seen ...
() implemented in regions of ethnic minorities groups during the
Tang dynasty The Tang dynasty (, ; zh, t= ), or Tang Empire, was an Dynasties in Chinese history, imperial dynasty of China that ruled from 618 to 907 AD, with an Zhou dynasty (690–705), interregnum between 690 and 705. It was preceded by the Sui dyn ...
. It was established as a specific political term during the
Yuan dynasty The Yuan dynasty (), officially the Great Yuan (; xng, , , literally "Great Yuan State"), was a Mongol-led imperial dynasty of China and a successor state to the Mongol Empire after its division. It was established by Kublai, the fif ...
and was used as a political institution to administer newly acquired territories following their conquest of the Dali Kingdom in 1253. Members of the former Duan imperial clan of the Dali Kingdom were appointed as governors-general with nominal authority using the title "Dali chief steward" (, p ''Dàlǐ Zǒngguǎn''), and local leaders were co-opted under a variety of titles as administrators of the region.Bin Yang.
Between Winds and Clouds: The Making of Yunnan
', Ch. 4. Columbia University Press.
Some credit the Turkoman governor
Sayyid Ajjal Shams al-Din Omar Sayyid Ajall Shams al-Din Omar al-Bukhari ( fa, سید اجل شمس‌الدین عمر بخاری; ; 1211–1279) was Yunnan's first provincial governor, appointed by the Mongol-led Yuan dynasty of China. Life Shams al-Din was of Central Asian ...
with introducing the system into China. Duan Xingzhi, the last emperor of Dali, was appointed as the first local ruler, and he accepted the stationing of a pacification commissioner there. Duan Xingzhi offered the Yuan maps of Yunnan and led a considerable army to serve as guides for the Yuan army. By the end of 1256,
Yunnan Yunnan , () is a landlocked province in the southwest of the People's Republic of China. The province spans approximately and has a population of 48.3 million (as of 2018). The capital of the province is Kunming. The province borders the ...
was considered to have been pacified. Under the Yuan dynasty, the native officials, or ''tusi'', were the clients of a patron-client relationship. The patron, the Yuan emperors, exercised jurisdictional control over the client, but not his/her territory itself. The ''tusi'' chieftains and local tribe leaders and kingdoms in Yunnan, Guizhou and Sichuan submitted to Yuan rule and were allowed to keep their titles. The
Han Chinese The Han Chinese () or Han people (), are an East Asian ethnic group native to China. They constitute the world's largest ethnic group, making up about 18% of the global population and consisting of various subgroups speaking distinctive v ...
Yang family ruling the Chiefdom of Bozhou which was recognized by the
Song A song is a musical composition intended to be performed by the human voice. This is often done at distinct and fixed pitches (melodies) using patterns of sound and silence. Songs contain various forms, such as those including the repetiti ...
and
Tang Tang or TANG most often refers to: * Tang dynasty * Tang (drink mix) Tang or TANG may also refer to: Chinese states and dynasties * Jin (Chinese state) (11th century – 376 BC), a state during the Spring and Autumn period, called Tang (唐) ...
dynasties also received recognition by the subsequent Yuan and Ming dynasties. The Luo clan in Shuixi led by Ahua were recognized by the Yuan emperors, as they were by the Song emperors when led by Pugui and Tang emperors when led by Apei. They descended from the Shu Han era king Huoji who helped
Zhuge Liang Zhuge Liang ( zh, t=諸葛亮 / 诸葛亮) (181 – September 234), courtesy name Kongming, was a Chinese statesman and military strategist. He was chancellor and later regent of the state of Shu Han during the Three Kingdoms period. He is ...
against Meng Huo. They were also recognized by the Ming dynasty.


Ming dynasty

In 1364, Zhu Yuanzhang conquered Huguang. Rather than building a bureaucratic system of his own in Huguang, Zhu chose to keep the native chieftaincy system implemented by the Yuan dynasty. He reappointed many ''tusi'' to the same posts as they had during the Yuan dynasty. After reunifying China under the Ming dynasty and becoming the Hongwu Emperor, he brought this practice to the entire southern border zone of the empire. In 1381, Hongwu sent a force against the last remnant of the forces of the Yuan dynasty, led by the Prince of Liang Basalawarmi, who committed suicide. This left Duan Gong, a successor of Duan Xingzhi, as the last representative of the remaining Yuan forces. He refused to surrender and attempted to have the former realm of the Dali Kingdom recognized as a tributary state. When he was defeated in battle, the surviving Duan brothers were taken captive and escorted to the capital. There they were given an insignificant office in the interior. From then on, "permanent chieftains were replaced by transferable officials," formally appointed by the Ming court. Local leaders were obliged to provide troops, suppress local rebellions, and pay tribute to
Beijing } Beijing ( ; ; ), Chinese postal romanization, alternatively romanized as Peking ( ), is the Capital city, capital of the China, People's Republic of China. It is the center of power and development of the country. Beijing is the world's Li ...
annually, biennially, or triennially according to their distance. The post was hereditary as opposed to the examination system in China proper, but succession, promotion, and demotion were all controlled by the Ming administration which required each ''tusi'' to use a seal and an official charter. To establish legitimate successions, ''tusi'' were ordered to list their sons and nephews in AD 1436, to redo the list in quadruplicate in 1441, and to renew the list triennially in 1441 and again in 1485. The Ming dynasty also took over regencies of children younger than 15 in 1489. ''Tusi'' chiefs could sometimes be female according to local customs and had full authority over their own tribesmen, but were kept under supervision by the Ming Ministry of Personnel or the Ministry of War. Areas of ''tusi'' administration tended to explode into violence or turmoil intermittently and would invariably provoke Ming military intervention. However, these incidents are generally attributed to provocations by Chinese settlers or corrupt officials and not the fault of the tribes themselves. The native chieftain system was a mutual-beneficial cooperation between the central government and native chieftains. For a quite long time after the foundation of Ming, the rulers knew that the central government could only use limited amount of resources. Having a large number of armies stationed in southern borderland, an area with harsh natural environment and large number of Non-Han people, was too costly for Ming rulers. Thus, they decided to transfer part of ruling power to those local political rulers in exchange for their defense of the border zone.


Civil and military tusis

The Ming ''tusi'' were categorized into civil and military ranks.Pamela Kyle Crossley, Helen F. Siu, Donald S.Sutton (2006). ''Empire at the Margins: Culture, Ethnicity, and Frontier in Early Modern China''. (Berkeley: University of California Press,2006), pp. 136. The civilian tusi were given the titles of ''Tu Zhifu'' ("native prefecture"), ''Tu Zhizhou'' ("native department") and ''Tu Zhixian'' ("native county") according to the size and population of their domains. Nominally, they had the same rank as their counterparts in the regular administration system The central government gave more autonomy to those military tusi who controlled areas with fewer Han Chinese people and had underdeveloped infrastructure. They pledged loyalty to the Ming emperor but had almost unfettered power within their domains.   All the native chieftains were nominally subordinate to Pacification Commissioners (''Xuanfushi'', ''Xuanweishi'', ''Anfushi''). The Pacification Commissioners were also native chieftains who received their title from the Ming court. As a way of checking their power, Pacification Commissioners were put under the supervision of the Ministry of War. Throughout its 276 year history, the Ming dynasty bestowed a total of 1608 ''tusi'' titles, 960 of which were military-rank and 648 were civilian-rank, the majority of which were in Yunnan, Guizhou and Sichuan. In Tibet, Qinghai and Sichuan, the Ming court sometimes gave both ''tusi'' titles and religious titles to leaders. As a result, those ''tusi'' had double identities. They played both the role of political leaders and religious leaders within their domains. For example, during the reign of the
Yongle Emperor The Yongle Emperor (; pronounced ; 2 May 1360 – 12 August 1424), personal name Zhu Di (), was the third Emperor of the Ming dynasty, reigning from 1402 to 1424. Zhu Di was the fourth son of the Hongwu Emperor, the founder of the Ming dyn ...
, the leader of the Jinchuan monastery assisted the Ming army in a battle against the Mongols. The leader was later given the title ''Yanhua Chanshi'' (), or "Evolved Chan Master", and the power to rule 15 villages as his domain as a reward.邹, 立波 (2010). "从土司封号看嘉绒藏族土司与宗教的关系". ''西南民族大学学报(人文社科版)''. 31 (02): 11–15, p. 11.


Power and privileges of Tusi

After a chieftain was recognized by the central government as a ''tusi'', he would receive a patent of appointment, a bronze official seal, a belt decorated with gold, and a formal attire as uniform.Shin, ''The making of the Chinese state,'' p. 62.          The title of ''tusi'' was hereditary and passed down to an heir. The entire clan of a ''tusi'' enjoyed privileges within the domain. In Ming China, the clan of a ''tusi'' was called ''Guanzu'' ("official clan"). Members of the official clan had higher social ranks than commoners and slaves. Only members of official clan, Han Chinese, and descendants of former officials were allowed to receive education and take examinations. Each ''tusi'' could build and live in a '' yamen''. A ''yamen'' was the headquarter of local officials that contained infrastructures, such as the courtroom, sacrificial altar, ancestral hall, granary, offices, and the living quarters of official’s family. The structure of government and way of adjudication varied in each domain because of the diversity of ''tusis cultural backgrounds. Normally, there were no statute law in the domain. The will of the tusi was the law. A ''tusi'' had court and jail in his ''yamen'' and could imprison or punish his subjects as long as he thought it was necessary. For instance, Li Depu, the native official of Anping subprefecture in Guangxi province, brutally punished a serf for wearing white stockings because according to his dress rule only official clans were allowed to do so. Commoners ruled by tusi often called them ''Tu Huangdi'' ("local emperor"). This analogy between ''tusi'' and emperors in some way reflected the almost unfettered judicial power of a ''tusi'' in his domain. ''Tusi'' were given the power of collecting tax in their domain. For seasonal religious rituals or sacrifices, ''tusi'' had rights to collect rice and copper coins from each local household. As the head of clan, each ''tusi'' had right to disposal the property of his clan. Apart from bodyguards, ''tusi'' were allowed to maintain a private military, the size of which depended on their domain's resources, to better defend the borderland and suppress rebellion.


Responsibilities of native chieftains in Ming time

The ''tusi'' were considered vassals of the Ming emperor. They enjoyed autonomy or semi-autonomy in their domains, but were expected to maintain order and defend the border zones for the Ming dynasty. When the Ming court wanted to start any campaign near their domains, the chieftains were required to lead their private armies and assist the Ming army in the battle. Those soldiers supplied by ''tusi'' were called ''Tu Bing'' ("native soldier"). In the campaign against Annam, the Ming court recruited a large number of native soldiers from the southern provinces. Also, ''tusi'' were required to pay tributes to the Ming court. The periodic tribute goods sent by native chieftains contained various goods: 1.   animals, such as horses and elephants 2.   products made from rare wild animals, such as elephant tusks and rhinoceros’ horns 3.   medicinal herbs 4.   incense 5.   silver utensils 6.   minerals, such as tin


Income of ''tusi''

''Tusi'' received no regular salary or stipend from the government but they were allowed to collect tax from their subjects. These taxes could be paid with crops, textiles and money. Some ''tusi'' required their subjects to pay them copper coin and chickens as gifts at some specific events of their clan. For example, in Anping of Guangxi province, each household was required to donate 400 copper coins during weddings and funerals of members of the ''tusis family.Took, ''A Native Chieftaincy in Southwest China'', p. 97.    ''Tusi'' could get paid by the government for their assistance in the battles, but this did not happen regularly.


Conflicts

In 1388 the Ming–Mong Mao War was fought between the general
Mu Ying Mu Ying (1345–1392) was a Chinese military general and politician during the Ming dynasty, and an adopted son of its founder, the Hongwu Emperor. When the Ming dynasty emerged, the Hongwu Emperor's military officers who served under him were g ...
and the semi-independent ''tusi'' of Mong Mao, Si Lunfa, located in what is now Tengchong in southwestern Yunnan. In 1397 the Ming intervened in a Mong Mao succession dispute, known as the Ming–Mong Mao Intervention. In the late 1300s, Đại Việt attacked the tusis on the
Guangxi Guangxi (; ; alternately romanized as Kwanghsi; ; za, Gvangjsih, italics=yes), officially the Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region (GZAR), is an autonomous region of the People's Republic of China, located in South China and bordering Vietnam ...
border. This in conjunction with the overthrow of the Trần dynasty by the
Hồ dynasty The Hồ dynasty (Vietnamese: , chữ Nôm: 茹胡; Sino-Vietnamese: ''Hồ triều, chữ Hán:'' 胡 朝) was a short-lived Vietnamese dynasty consisting of the reigns of two monarchs, Hồ Quý Ly (胡季犛) in 1400–01 and his second s ...
led to the
Fourth Chinese domination of Vietnam The Fourth Era of Northern Domination was a period of Vietnamese history, from 1407 to 1427, during which Vietnam was ruled by the Chinese Ming dynasty as the province of Jiaozhi (Giao Chỉ). Ming rule was established in Vietnam following its ...
. In 1438 the Mong Mao rebelled again and their leader Si Renfa attacked local tusi along the Yunnan border. Si Renfa was defeated in 1442 and captured by the Ava king, who turned him over to Ming custody, where he died in 1446. In 1621 the
Yi people The Yi or Nuosu people,; zh, c=彝族, p=Yízú, l=Yi ethnicity historically known as the Lolo,; vi, Lô Lô; th, โล-โล, Lo-Lo are an ethnic group in China, Vietnam, and Thailand. Numbering nine million people, they are the seve ...
instigated the She-An Rebellion in Sichuan and Guizhou, which lasted until 1629 and took an astronomical toll on Ming resources before it was quelled.


''Gaitu Guiliu''

''Gaitu guiliu'' (改土歸流) was a policy of abolishing the rule of local ''tusi'' (土司) and replace (''gai'' 改) them by a "mainstream" (''liu'' 流) direct administration. ''Gaitu guiliu'' was heavily enforced during the Ming and Qing periods. During the Ming dynasty, there were 179 ''tusi'' and 255 ''tuguan'' (, "native civilian commanders") in Yunnan and titles were generally retained with the exception of punishment for severe crimes. The ''tusi'' were greatly reduced during the Ming-Qing era. By the time of the Yongzheng Emperor, there were only around 41 left in Yunnan, including Cheli,
Gengma Gengma Dai and Va Autonomous County () is located in Lincang Lincang () is a prefecture-level city located in the southwest of Yunnan province, People's Republic of China. History Lincang was previously called Baihuai during the Shang dynas ...
, Longchuan, Ganya (modern Yingjiang), Nandian, Menglian,
Zhefang Zhefang () is a town in Mangshi, Yunnan, China. As of the 2017 census it had a population of 49,000 and an area of . The town is bordered to the north by Xishan Township, to the east by Santaishan Town and Mengga Town, to the south by Manghai Tow ...
, Zhanda,
Lujiang Lujiang County () is a county of Anhui Province, East China, it is under the administration of the prefecture-level city of Hefei, the capital of Anhui. It is the southernmost county-level division under the jurisdiction of the provincial ca ...
, Mangshi, Mengmao ( Ruili), Nalou, Kuirong, Shierguan,
Menghua Weishan Yi and Hui Autonomous County (; Xiao'erjing: ) is an autonomous county in the Dali Bai Autonomous Prefecture, in the west-central part of Yunnan Province, China. It was known as Menghua () until the 1950s. Geography It is situated in the ...
, Jingdong, Mengding, Yongning,
Fuzhou Fuzhou (; , Fuzhounese: Hokchew, ''Hók-ciŭ''), alternately romanized as Foochow, is the capital and one of the largest cities in Fujian province, China. Along with the many counties of Ningde, those of Fuzhou are considered to constitute ...
, Wandian, Zhenkang, and Beishengzhou. Under Ming administration, the jurisdictional authority of tusi began to be replaced with state territorial authority. The ''tusi'' acted as stop gaps until enough Chinese settlers arrived for a "tipping point" to be reached, and they were then converted into official prefectures and counties to be fully annexed into the central bureaucratic system of the Ming dynasty. This process was known as ''gaitu guiliu'' (), or "turning native rule into regular administration". The most notable example of this was the consolidation of southwestern ''tusi'' chiefdoms into the province of
Guizhou Guizhou (; Postal romanization, formerly Kweichow) is a landlocked Provinces of China, province in the Southwest China, southwest region of the China, People's Republic of China. Its capital and largest city is Guiyang, in the center of the pr ...
in 1413. In sum, ''gaitu guiliu'' was the process of replacing ''tusi'' with state-appointed officials, the transition from jurisdictional sovereignty to territorial sovereignty, and the start of formal empire rather than informal.


End

In Guangxi, the
Qing The Qing dynasty ( ), officially the Great Qing,, was a Manchu-led imperial dynasty of China and the last orthodox dynasty in Chinese history. It emerged from the Later Jin dynasty founded by the Jianzhou Jurchens, a Tungusic-speak ...
Yongzheng Emperor took on a campaign to reform native Zhuang following which 87 out of 128 ''tusis'' were replaced by officials. At the start of the 20th century, there were eight ''tusis'' remained, all within present-day Daxin County. In 1928, Xincheng, the last tusi in Guangxi was converted to a county, ending the ''gaitu guiliu'' reforms. On 23 January 1953, the P.R. China (PRC) established the Xishuangbanna Dai Autonomous Region and ended the last Tusi system in Sipsongpanna.


Native Chieftain titles

The native chieftain system also fit in the Nine Ranks system (''Jiu Pin''; "九品").The Nine Ranks system is a system of gradations used by regimes from post-Han to Qing.Charles O,Hucker. ''A dictionary of official titles in Imperial China''. (Stanford : Stanford University Press, 1985),p. 4-5.   Under this system, all the officials in the bureaucracy were put into nine major categories: upper-upper, upper-middle, upper-lower, middle-upper, middle-middle, middle-lower, lower-upper, lower-middle, and lower-lower. Each category was given a rank numbered from 1 to 9. The rank 1 is the highest rank and the rank 9 is the lowest. Each rank was divided into two grades: upper () and lower (). The central government gave different titles to native chieftains and these titles had different ranks in the Nine Ranks system:


List of ''tusi''


Chongqing province ''tusi''

* Chiefdom of Shizhu (), ruled Shizhu, ended in 1761 when the final tusi became a local magistrate


Guangxi province ''tusi''

* Chiefdom of Yongshun (), ruled Yizhou District, abolished in 1928 and merged into Yizhou District *Anping *Xincheng *Wancheng


Guizhou province ''tusi''

* Chiefdom of Bozhou (), ruled Bozhou (present day
Zunyi Zunyi () is a prefecture-level city in northern Guizhou province, People's Republic of China, situated between the provincial capital Guiyang to the south and Chongqing to the north, also bordering Sichuan to the northwest. Along with Guiyang an ...
), abolished after a failed rebellion in 1600 * Chiefdom of Shuidong (), ruled Shuidong (present day Sinan County), abolished after a failed rebellion in 1630 * Chiefdom of Shuixi (), ruled Shuixi (present day Dafang County), abolished in 1698 * Chiefdom of Sinan (), ruled Sinan, abolished in 1414 * Chiefdom of Sizhou (), ruled Sizhou (present day
Cengong County Cengong County (), which was called (思州) in ancient times, is a county of eastern Guizhou province, China. It is under the administration of the Qiandongnan Miao and Dong Autonomous Prefecture Qiandongnan Miao and Dong Autonomous Prefecture ...
), abolished in 1414


Sichuan province ''tusi''

* Chiefdom of Canbolang (), ruled Litang County * Chiefdom of Dongbohanhu (), ruled Jinchuan County * Chiefdom of Leipo (), ruled
Leibo County Leibo County is a mountainous county of southern Sichuan province, People's Republic of China, along the border with Yunnan. It is under the administration of the Liangshan Yi Autonomous Prefecture, and has a population of 223,000, 91% of whom are ...
* Chiefdom of Manyi (), ruled Pingshan County * Chiefdom of Mo'erkan (), ruled Garzê Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture and
Markam County Markam County, (; ) is a county under the jurisdiction of the Chamdo in the Tibet Autonomous Region, bordering the provinces of Sichuan to the east and Yunnan to the south. It is the easternmost county-level division of the Tibet A.R. Climate ...
* Chiefdom of Muchuan (), ruled Pingshan County * Chiefdom of Nixi (), ruled Pingshan County * Chiefdom of Pingyi (), ruled Pingshan County and
Suijiang County Suijiang County () is a county in the northeast of Yunnan province, China, bordering Sichuan province across the Jinsha River to the north and west. It is under the administration of the prefecture-level city of Zhaotong. Administrative divisions ...
* Chiefdom of Yidu (), ruled Pingshan County


Yunnan province ''tusi''

* Chiang Hung, ruled Sipsong Panna (present day
Xishuangbanna Dai Autonomous Prefecture Xishuangbanna, Sibsongbanna or Sipsong Panna ( Tham: , New Tai Lü script: ; ; th, สิบสองปันนา; lo, ສິບສອງພັນນາ; shn, သိပ်းသွင်ပၼ်းၼႃး; my, စစ်ဆောင်� ...
) * Mong Mao * Kokang * Chiefdom of Heqing (), ruled Heqing County, descendants of
Gao Shengtai Gao Shengtai (died 1096) was the founder and the only emperor of the short-lived Dazhong Kingdom from 1094 until his death in 1096. He was from Cang Mountain in the present-day southern Chinese province of Yunnan. Life In 1080, Duan Lianyi, ...
, became a local magistrate in 1683 * Chiefdom of Ganya (), ruled Yingjiang County, abolished in 1949 * Chiefdom of Gengma (), ruled Gengma Dai and Va Autonomous County, abolished in 1950 * Chiefdom of Lijiang (), ruled Lijiang * Chiefdom of Luomeng (), ruled Shilin Yi Autonomous County * Meng Xon (), or
Chiefdom of Mangshi The Chiefdom of Mangshi, officially Mangshi ''Yuyi Zhangguansi'' and Mangshi ''Anfusi'' was a Dai autonomous Tusi chiefdom in the west of Yunnan, China from 1443 to 1955. In 1443, the Ming dynasty established Mangshi ''Yuyi Zhangguansi'' () beca ...
(), ruled Mangshi * Chiefdom of Mengban (), ruled Mangshi * Chiefdom of Menghai (), ruled Menghai County * Chiefdom of Menghan (), ruled Jinghong * Chiefdom of Mengjiaodong (), ruled Cangyuan Va Autonomous County *
Chiefdom of Yao'an Chiefdom of Yao'an (), ruled by the Gao clan, was a Bai autonomous ''Tusi'' chiefdom during Yuan, Ming and Qing dynasty. The chiefdom located at the convergence of Yunnan and Sichuan. The Gao clan were descendants of Gao Shengtai, whom was th ...
(), ruled
Yao'an County Yao'an County (; Chuxiong Yi script: , IPA: ) is under the administration of the Chuxiong Yi Autonomous Prefecture Chuxiong Yi Autonomous Prefecture (; Chuxiong Yi script: , IPA: ; Yi script: ꊉꇑꆑꌠꑼꂰ; Yi Pinyin: wop lup nut su yuop ...
, descendants of
Gao Shengtai Gao Shengtai (died 1096) was the founder and the only emperor of the short-lived Dazhong Kingdom from 1094 until his death in 1096. He was from Cang Mountain in the present-day southern Chinese province of Yunnan. Life In 1080, Duan Lianyi, ...
*
Chiefdom of Yongning Chiefdom of Yongning () was a Mosuo autonomous Tusi chiefdom during the Ming and Qing dynasties. The chiefdom was located at present-day Ninglang Yi Autonomous County at the convergence of Yunnan, Sichuan and Tibet. According to legend, the anc ...
(), ruled Yongning (present day Ninglang Yi Autonomous County) * Chiefdom of Yongsheng (), ruled Yongsheng County, descendants of
Gao Shengtai Gao Shengtai (died 1096) was the founder and the only emperor of the short-lived Dazhong Kingdom from 1094 until his death in 1096. He was from Cang Mountain in the present-day southern Chinese province of Yunnan. Life In 1080, Duan Lianyi, ...
*
Chiefdom of Zhefang A chiefdom is a form of hierarchical political organization in non-industrial societies usually based on kinship, and in which formal leadership is monopolized by the legitimate senior members of select families or 'houses'. These elites form a ...
(), ruled Mangshi


Tibetan ''tusi''

* Chiefdom of Chuchen, or Chiefdom of Greater Jinchuan (), ruled present day Jinchuan County, annexed by Qing China in Jinchuan campaigns * Chiefdom of Tsanlha (), or Chiefdom of Lesser Jinchuan (), ruled present day Xiaojin County, annexed by Qing China in Jinchuan campaigns *
Chiefdom of Bathang Chiefdom of Bathang (), or Chiefdom of Batang (), was an autonomous Tusi chiefdom that ruled Bathang (present day Batang County of Garzê Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture) during the Qing dynasty period. Bathang belonged to the Chiefdom of Lijiang ...
(, ), ruled
Batang County Batang County (; ) is a county located in western Garzê Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture, Sichuan Province, People's Republic of China. Government address: Xiaqiong Town, Batang County, Ganzi, Sichuan 627650. Area code: 0836. The main administrativ ...
, revolted against Qing China in 1905 and was annexed in the next year *
Chiefdom of Lithang Chiefdom of Lithang (), or Chiefdom of Litang (), was an autonomous Tusi chiefdom that ruled Litang (present day Litang County of Garzê Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture) during the Qing dynasty period. Lithang, Bathang, Chakla and Derge were call ...
(, ), ruled Litang County, revolted against Qing China in 1905 and was annexed in the next year * Chiefdom of Béri () or Chiefdom of Baili (), ruled Béri (present day part of Garzê County) * Kingdom of Chakla () or Chiefdom of Mingzheng (), ruled Dartsedo (present day Kangding) * Kingdom of Derge (; ), ruled
Dêgê County Dêgê County (; ) is a county in southern China, which was formerly one of the Kham region's five independent kingdoms - the Kingdom of Derge - but is now administered as a county in Garzê Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture in far northwestern Sic ...
*
Chiefdom of Muli A chiefdom is a form of hierarchical political organization in non-industrial societies usually based on kinship, and in which formal leadership is monopolized by the legitimate senior members of select families or 'houses'. These elites form a ...
(; ), ruled present day Muli Tibetan Autonomous County * Kingdom of Powo (; ), ruled present day Bomê County, annexed by
Tibet Tibet (; ''Böd''; ) is a region in East Asia, covering much of the Tibetan Plateau and spanning about . It is the traditional homeland of the Tibetan people. Also resident on the plateau are some other ethnic groups such as Monpa people, ...
in 1928. Descendants of Drigum Tsenpo. * Chiefdom of Zhuoni (; ), ruled Gannan Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture * Chiefdom of Duogandan (), ruled Garzê Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture and
Yushu Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture Yushu Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture (, , retranscribed into Tibetan as ), also transliterated as Yüxü or Yulshul, is an autonomous prefecture of Southwestern Qinghai Province, China. Largely inhabited by Tibetans, the prefecture has an area of ...
* Chiefdom of Duogancangtang (), ruled Ngawa Tibetan and Qiang Autonomous Prefecture * Chiefdom of Duogan (), ruled Garzê Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture * Chiefdom of Duoganchuan (), ruled Garzê Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture * Chiefdom of Duogansi (), ruled Garzê Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture * Chiefdom of Duoganlongda (), ruled
Chamdo Chamdo, officially Qamdo () and also known in Chinese as Changdu, is a prefecture-level city in the eastern part of the Tibet Autonomous Region, China. Its seat is the town of Chengguan in Karuo District. Chamdo is Tibet's third largest city ...
and Garzê Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture * Kingdom of Lingtsang (; ), ruled Garzê Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture * Chiefdom of Changhexi (), ruled Garzê Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture * Chiefdom of Longda (), ruled Garzê Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture * Chiefdom of Nangqên (; ), ruled Nangqên County * Chiefdom of Dasima (), ruled Hainan Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture


See also

* Chiefdom * Tributary system of China * Mandala (political model) * Chao Pha *
Mueang Mueang ( th, เมือง ''mɯ̄ang'', ), Muang ( lo, ເມືອງ ''mɯ́ang'', ; Tai Nuea: ᥛᥫᥒᥰ ''muang''), Mong ( shn, ''mə́ŋ'', ), Meng () or Mường (Vietnamese), were pre-modern semi-independent city-states or principali ...


References


Bibliography

* * *Leo Kwok-yueh, Shin(2006)'', The making of the Chinese state: ethnicity and expansion on the Ming borderlands,''Cambridge University Press *Took Jennifer(2005), ''A Native Chieftaincy in Southwest China: Franchising a Tai Chieftaincy under Tusi System of Late Imperial China'',BRILL *Hucker, Charles O(1985), ''A dictionary of official titles in Imperial China,'' Stanford University Press {{Qing dynasty topics Ethnic groups in China Ethnic groups in Vietnam History of Yunnan History of Guizhou History of Guangxi History of Sichuan History of Vietnam