Etymology
The term "thesis" comes from the Greek word , meaning "something put forth", and refers to an intellectualA 'thesis' is a supposition of some eminent philosopher that conflicts with the general opinion...for to take notice when any ordinary person expresses views contrary to men's usual opinions would be silly.For Aristotle, a thesis would therefore be a supposition that is stated in contradiction with general opinion or express disagreement with other philosophers (104b33-35). A supposition is a statement or opinion that may or may not be true depending on the evidence and/or proof that is offered (152b32). The purpose of the dissertation is thus to outline the proofs of why the author disagrees with other philosophers or the general opinion.
Structure and presentation style
Structure
A thesis (or dissertation) may be arranged as a thesis by publication or a monograph, with or without appended papers, respectively, though many graduate programs allow candidates to submit a curatedStyle
Degree-awarding institutions often define their own house style that candidates have to follow when preparing a thesis document. In addition to institution-specific house styles, there exist a number of field-specific, national, and international standards and recommendations for the presentation of theses, for instance ISO 7144. Other applicable international standards include ISO 2145 on section numbers, ISO 690 on bibliographic references, and ISO 31 on quantities or units. Some older house styles specify that front matter (title page, abstract, table of content, etc.) must use a separate page number sequence from the main text, using Roman numerals. The relevant international standard and many newer style guides recognize that thisThesis committee
The thesis committee (or dissertation committee) is a committee that supervises a student's dissertation. In the US, these committees usually consist of a primary supervisor orRole of thesis supervisor
The role of the thesis supervisor is to assist and support a student in their studies, and to determine whether a thesis is ready for examination. The thesis is authored by the student, not the supervisor. The duties of the thesis supervisor also include checking for copyright compliance and ensuring that the student has included in/with the thesis a statement attesting that he/she is the sole author of the thesis.Regional and degree-specific practices and terminologies
Argentina
In the '' Latin American docta'', the academic dissertation can be referred to as different stages inside the academic program that the student is seeking to achieve into a recognized Argentine University, in all the cases the students must develop original contribution in the chosen fields by means of several paper work and essays that comprehend the body of the ''thesis''. Correspondingly to the academic degree, the last phase of an academic thesis is called in Spanish a ''defensa de grado'', ''defensa magistral'' or ''defensa doctoral'' in cases in which the university candidate is finalizing their licentiate, master's, or PhD program, respectively. According to a committee resolution, the dissertation can be approved or rejected by an academic committee consisting of the thesis director and at least one evaluator. All the dissertation referees must already have achieved at least the academic degree that the candidate is trying to reach.Canada
At English-speaking Canadian universities, writings presented in fulfillment of undergraduate coursework requirements are normally called ''papers'', ''term papers'' or ''essays''. A longer paper or essay presented for completion of a 4-year bachelor's degree is sometimes called a ''major paper''. High-quality research papers presented as the empirical study of a "postgraduate" consecutive bachelor ''with Honours'' or Baccalaureatus Cum Honore degree are called ''thesis'' (Honours Seminar Thesis). Major papers presented as the final project for a master's degree are normally called ''thesis''; and major papers presenting the student's research towards a doctoral degree are called ''theses'' or ''dissertations''. At Canadian universities under the French influenced system, students may have a choice between presenting a "''mémoire''"', which is a shorter synthetic work (roughly 75 pages) and a ''thèse'' which is one hundred pages or more. A synthetic monograph associated with doctoral work is referred to as a "''thèse''". See alsoCroatia
At most university faculties in Croatia, a degree is obtained by defending a thesis after having passed all the classes specified in the degree programme. In the Bologna system, the bachelor's thesis, called ''završni rad'' (literally "final work" or "concluding work") is defended after 3 years of study and is about 30 pages long. Most students with bachelor's degrees continue onto master's programmes which end with a master's thesis called ''diplomski rad'' (literally "diploma work" or "graduate work"). The term dissertation is used for a doctoral degree paper (''doktorska disertacija'').Czech Republic
In the Czech Republic, higher education is completed by passing all classes remaining to the educational compendium for given degree and defending a thesis. ForFinland
The following types of thesis are used in Finland (names in Finnish/Swedish): * ''Kandidaatintutkielma/kandidatavhandling'' is the dissertation associated with lower-level academic degrees (France
In France, the academic dissertation or thesis is called a ''thèse'' and it is reserved for the final work of doctoral candidates. The minimum page length is generally (and not formally) 100 pages (or about 400,000 characters), but is usually several times longer (except for technical theses and for "exact sciences" such as physics and maths). To complete a master's degree in research, a student is required to write a ''Germany
In Germany, an academic thesis is called ''Abschlussarbeit'' or, more specifically, the basic name of the degree complemented by ''-arbeit'' (rough translation: ''-work''; e.g., ''Diplomarbeit'', ''Masterarbeit'', ''Doktorarbeit''). For bachelor's and master's degrees, the name can alternatively be complemented by ''-thesis'' instead (e.g., ''Bachelorthesis''). Length is often given in page count and depends upon departments, faculties, and fields of study. A bachelor's thesis is often 40–60 pages long, a diploma thesis and a master's thesis usually 60–100. The required submission for a doctorate is called a ''Dissertation'' or ''Doktorarbeit''. The submission for a Habilitation, which is an academic qualification, not an academic degree, is called ''Habilitationsschrift'', not ''Habilitationsarbeit''. A doctoral degree is often earned with multiple levels of a Latin honors remark for the thesis ranging from ''summa cum laude'' (best) to ''rite'' (duly). A thesis can also be rejected with a Latin remark (''non-rite'', ''non-sufficit'' or worst as ''sub omni canone''). Bachelor's and master's theses receive numerical grades from 1.0 (best) to 5.0 (failed).India
In India the thesis defense is called a ( Latin for "by live voice") examination (''viva'' in short). Involved in the ''viva'' are two examiners, one guide(student guide) and the candidate. One examiner is an academic from the candidate's own university department (but not one of the candidate's supervisors) and the other is anIndonesia
In Indonesia, the term thesis is used specifically to refer to master's theses. The undergraduate thesis is called '' skripsi'', while the doctoral dissertation is called '' disertasi''. In general, those three terms are usually called as ''tugas akhir'' (final assignment), which is mostly mandatory for the completion of a degree. Undergraduate students usually begin to write their final assignment in their third, fourth or fifth enrollment year, depends on the requirements of their respective disciplines and universities. In some universities, students are required to write a ''proposal skripsi'' or ''proposal tesis'' (thesis proposal) before they could write their final assignment. If the thesis proposal is considered to fulfill the qualification by the academic examiners, students then may proceed to write their final assignment.Iran
In Iran, usually students are required to present a thesis ( fa, پایاننامه ''pāyān-nāmeh'') in their master's degree and a dissertation ( ''resāleh'') in their Doctorate degree, both of which requiring the students to defend their research before a committee and gaining their approval. Most of the norms and rules of writing a thesis or a dissertation are influenced by the French higher education system.Italy
In Italy there are normally three types of thesis. In order of complexity: one for the Laurea (equivalent to the UK Bachelor's Degree), another one for the Laurea Magistrale (equivalent to the UK Master's Degree) and then a thesis to complete the Dottorato di Ricerca (PhD). Thesis requirements vary greatly between degrees and disciplines, ranging from as low as 3–4 ECTS credits to more than 30. Thesis work is mandatory for the completion of a degree.Kazakhstan
In Kazakhstan, a bachelor's degree typically requires a ''bachelor's diploma work'' (kz "бакалаврдың дипломдық жұмысы"), while the master's and PhD degree require a ''master's/doctoral dissertation'' (kz "магистрлік/докторлық диссертация"). All the works are publicly presented to the special council at the end of the training, which thoroughly examines the work. PhD candidates may be allowed to present their work without a written thesis, if they provide enough publications in leading journals of the field, and one of which should be a review article specifically.Malaysia
Malaysian universities often follow the British model for dissertations and degrees. However, a few universities follow the United States model for theses and dissertations. Some public universities have both British and US style PhD programs. Branch campuses of British, Australian and Middle East universities in Malaysia use the respective models of the home campuses.Pakistan
In Pakistan, at undergraduate level the thesis is usually called final year project, as it is completed in the senior year of the degree, the name project usually implies that the work carried out is less extensive than a thesis and bears lesser credit hours too. The undergraduate level project is presented through an elaborate written report and a presentation to the advisor, a board of faculty members and students. At graduate level however, i.e. in MS, some universities allow students to accomplish a project of 6 credits or a thesis of 9 credits, at least one publication is normally considered enough for the awarding of the degree with project and is considered mandatory for the awarding of a degree with thesis. A written report and a public thesis defense is mandatory, in the presence of a board of senior researchers, consisting of members from an outside organization or a university. A PhD candidate is supposed to accomplish extensive research work to fulfill the dissertation requirements with international publications being a mandatory requirement. The defense of the research work is done publicly.Philippines
In the Philippines, an academic thesis is named by the degree, such as bachelor/undergraduate thesis or masteral thesis. However, inPoland
In Poland, a bachelor's degree usually requires a ''praca licencjacka'' (bachelor's thesis) or the similar level degree in engineering requires a ''praca inżynierska'' (engineer's thesis/bachelor's thesis), the master's degree requires a ''praca magisterska'' (master's thesis). The academic dissertation for a PhD is called a ''dysertacja'' or ''praca doktorska''. The submission for the Habilitation is called ''praca habilitacyjna'' or ''dysertacja habilitacyjna''. Thus the term ''dysertacja'' is reserved for PhD and Habilitation degrees. All the theses need to be "defended" by the author during a special examination for the given degree. Examinations for PhD and Habilitation degrees are public.Portugal and Brazil
In Portugal and Brazil, a dissertation (''dissertação'') is required for completion of a master's degree. The defense is done in a public presentation in which teachers, students, and the general public can participate. For the PhD, a thesis (''tese'') is presented for defense in a public exam. The exam typically extends over 3 hours. The examination board typically involves 5 to 6 scholars (including the advisor) or other experts with a PhD degree (generally at least half of them must be external to the university where the candidate defends the thesis, but it may depend on the university). Each university / faculty defines the length of these documents, and it can vary also in respect to the domains (a thesis in fields like philosophy, history, geography, etc., usually has more pages than a thesis in mathematics, computer science, statistics, etc.) but typical numbers of pages are around 60–80 for MSc and 150–250 for PhD. In Brazil the Bachelor's Thesis is called ''TCC'' or ''Trabalho de Conclusão de Curso'' (Final Term / Undergraduate Thesis / Final Paper).Russia, Belarus, Ukraine
In Russia, Belarus, and Ukraine an academic dissertation or thesis is called what can be literally translated as a "master's degree work" (thesis), whereas the word ''dissertation'' is reserved for doctoral theses (Slovenia
At universities in Slovenia, an academic thesis called ''diploma thesis'' is a prerequisite for completing undergraduate studies. The thesis used to be 40–60 pages long, but has been reduced to 20–30 pages in new Bologna process programmes. To complete Master's studies, a candidate must write ''magistrsko delo'' (Master's thesis) that is longer and more detailed than the undergraduate thesis. The required submission for the doctorate is called ''doktorska disertacija'' (doctoral dissertation). In pre Bologna programmes students were able to skip the preparation and presentation of a Master's thesis and continue straightforward towards doctorate.Slovakia
In Slovakia, higher education is completed by defending a thesis, which is called ''bachelor's thesis'' "bakalárska práca" for bachelors programme, master's thesis or "diplomová práca" for master's degrees, and also doctor of medicine or dentistry degrees and dissertation "dizertačná práca" for Philosophiae doctor (PhD.) degree.Sweden
In Sweden, there are different types of theses. Practices and definitions vary between fields but commonly include the ''C thesis''/Bachelor thesis, which corresponds to 15 HP or 10 weeks of independent studies, ''D thesis''/'/ Magister/one year master's thesis, which corresponds to 15 HP or 10 weeks of independent studies and ''E Thesis''/two-year master's thesis, which corresponds to 30 HP or 20 weeks of independent studies. The undergraduate theses are called ''uppsats'' ("essay"), sometimes ''examensarbete'', especially at technical programmes. After that there are two types of post graduate theses: licentiate thesis (''licentiatuppsats'') and PhD dissertation (''doktorsavhandling''). A licentiate degree is approximately "half a PhD" in terms of the size and scope of the thesis. Swedish PhD studies should in theory last for four years, including course work and thesis work, but as many PhD students also teach, the PhD often takes longer to complete. The thesis can be written as a monograph or as aUnited Kingdom
Outside the academic community, the terms ''thesis'' and ''dissertation'' are interchangeable. At universities in the United Kingdom, the term ''thesis'' is usually associated with PhD/ EngD (United States
In some U.S. doctoral programs, the "dissertation" can take up the major part of the student's total time spent (along with two or three years of classes) and may take years of full-time work to complete. At most universities, ''dissertation'' is the term for the required submission for the doctorate, and ''thesis'' refers only to the master's degree requirement. ''Thesis'' is also used to describe a cumulative project for a bachelor's degree and is more common at selective colleges and universities, or for those seeking admittance to graduate school or to obtain an honors academic designation. These projects are called "senior projects" or "senior theses"; they are generally done in the senior year near graduation after having completed other courses, the independent study period, and the internship or student teaching period (the completion of most of the requirements before the writing of the paper ensures adequate knowledge and aptitude for the challenge). Unlike a dissertation or master's thesis, they are not as long and they do not require a novel contribution to knowledge or even a very narrow focus on a set subtopic. Like them, they can be lengthy and require months of work, they require supervision by at least one professor adviser, they must be focused on a certain area of knowledge, and they must use an appreciable amount of scholarly citations. They may or may not be defended before a committee but usually are not; there is generally no preceding examination before the writing of the paper, except for at very few colleges. Because of the nature of the graduate thesis or dissertation having to be more narrow and more novel, the result of original research, these usually have a smaller proportion of the work that is cited from other sources, though the fact that they are lengthier may mean they still have total citations. Specific undergraduate courses, especially writing-intensive courses or courses taken by upperclassmen, may also require one or more extensive written assignments referred to variously as theses, essays, or papers. Increasingly, high schools are requiring students to complete a senior project or senior thesis on a chosen topic during the final year as a prerequisite for graduation. TheThesis examinations
One of the requirements for certain advanced degrees is often an oral examination (called a ''Examination results
The result of the examination may be given immediately following deliberation by the examination committee (in which case the candidate may immediately be considered to have received their degree), or at a later date, in which case the examiners may prepare a defense report that is forwarded to a Board or Committee of Postgraduate Studies, which then officially recommends the candidate for the degree. Potential decisions (or "verdicts") include: * Accepted/pass with no corrections. : The thesis is accepted as presented. A grade may be awarded, though in many countries PhDs are not graded at all, and in others, only one of the theoretically possible grades (the highest) is ever used in practice. * The thesis must be revised. : Revisions (for example, correction of numerous grammatical or spelling errors; clarification of concepts or methodology; an addition of sections) are required. One or more members of the jury or the thesis supervisor will make the decision on the acceptability of revisions and provide written confirmation that they have been satisfactorily completed. If, as is often the case, the needed revisions are relatively modest, the examiners may all sign the thesis with the verbal understanding that the candidate will review the revised thesis with their supervisor before submitting the completed version. * Extensive revision required. : The thesis must be revised extensively and undergo the evaluation and defense process again from the beginning with the same examiners. Problems may include theoretical or methodological issues. A candidate who is not recommended for the degree after the second defense must normally withdraw from the program. * Unacceptable. : The thesis is unacceptable and the candidate must withdraw from the program. This verdict is given only when the thesis requires major revisions and when the examination makes it clear that the candidate is incapable of making such revisions. At most North American institutions the latter two verdicts are extremely rare, for two reasons. First, to obtain the status of doctoral candidates, graduate students typically pass a qualifying examination or comprehensive examination, which often includes an oral defense. Students who pass the qualifying examination are deemed capable of completing scholarly work independently and are allowed to proceed with working on a dissertation. Second, since the thesis supervisor (and the other members of the advisory committee) will normally have reviewed the thesis extensively before recommending the student to proceed to the defense, such an outcome would be regarded as a major failure not only on the part of the candidate but also by the candidate's supervisor (who should have recognized the substandard quality of the dissertation long before the defense was allowed to take place). It is also fairly rare for a thesis to be accepted without any revisions; the most common outcome of a defense is for the examiners to specify minor revisions (which the candidate typically completes in a few days or weeks). At universities on the British pattern it is not uncommon for theses at the ''viva'' stage to be subject to major revisions in which a substantial rewrite is required, sometimes followed by a new ''viva''. Very rarely, the thesis may be awarded the lesser degree of M.Phil. ( Master of Philosophy) instead, preventing the candidate from resubmitting the thesis.Australia
In Australia, doctoral theses are usually examined by three examiners (although some, like theGermany
In Germany, a thesis is usually examined with an oral examination. This applies to almost all Diplom, Magister, master's and doctoral degrees as well as to most bachelor's degrees. However, a process that allows for revisions of the thesis is usually only implemented for doctoral degrees. There are several different kinds of oral examinations used in practice. The ''Disputation'', also called ''Verteidigung'' ("defense"), is usually public (at least to members of the university) and is focused on the topic of the thesis. In contrast, the ''Rigorosum'' is not held in public and also encompasses fields in addition to the topic of the thesis. The ''Rigorosum'' is only common for doctoral degrees. Another term for an oral examination is ''Kolloquium'', which generally refers to a usually public scientific discussion and is often used synonymously with ''Verteidigung''. In each case, what exactly is expected differs between universities and between faculties. Some universities also demand a combination of several of these forms.Malaysia
Like the British model, the PhD or MPhil student is required to submit their theses or dissertation for examination by two or three examiners. The first examiner is from the university concerned, the second examiner is from another local university and the third examiner is from a suitable foreign university (usually from Commonwealth countries). The choice of examiners must be approved by the university senate. In some public universities, a PhD or MPhil candidate may also have to show a number publications in peer reviewed academic journals as part of the requirement. An oral viva is conducted after the examiners have submitted their reports to the university. The oral viva session is attended by the Oral Viva chairman, a rapporteur with a PhD qualification, the first examiner, the second examiner and sometimes the third examiner. Branch campuses of British, Australian and Middle East universities in Malaysia use the respective models of the home campuses to examine their PhD or MPhil candidates.Philippines
In the Philippines, a thesis is followed by an oral defense. In most universities, this applies to all bachelor, master, and doctorate degrees. However, the oral defense is held in once per semester (usually in the middle or by the end) with a presentation of revisions (so-called "plenary presentation") at the end of each semester. The oral defense is typically not held in public for bachelor and master oral defenses, however a colloquium is held for doctorate degrees.Portugal
In Portugal, a thesis is examined with an oral defense, which includes an initial presentation by the candidate followed by an extensive questioning/answering period.North America
In North America, the ''thesis defense'' or ''oral defense'' is the final examination forRussia and Ukraine
A student in Russia or Ukraine has to complete a thesis and then defend it in front of their department. Sometimes the defense meeting is made up of the learning institute's professionals and sometimes the students peers are allowed to view or join in. After the presentation and defense of the thesis, the final conclusion of the department should be that none of them have reservations on the content and quality of the thesis. A conclusion on the thesis has to be approved by theSpain
The formerUnited Kingdom, Ireland and Hong Kong
In Hong Kong, Ireland and the United Kingdom, the thesis defense is called a ( Latin for 'by live voice') examination (''viva'' for short). A typical ''viva'' lasts for approximately 3 hours, though there is no formal time limit. Involved in the ''viva'' are two examiners and the candidate. Usually, one examiner is an academic from the candidate's own university department (but not one of the candidate's supervisors) and the other is anSubmission
A submission of the thesis is the last formal requirement for most students after the defense. By the final deadline, the student must submit a complete copy of the thesis to the appropriate body within the accepting institution, along with the appropriate forms, bearing the signatures of the primary supervisor, the examiners, and in some cases, the head of the student's department. Other required forms may include library authorizations (giving the university library permission to make the thesis available as part of its collection) and copyright permissions (in the event that the student has incorporated copyrighted materials in the thesis). Many large scientific publishing houses (e.g. Taylor & Francis, Elsevier) use copyright agreements that allow the authors to incorporate their published articles into dissertations without separate authorization. Failure to submit the thesis by the deadline may result in graduation (and granting of the degree) being delayed. At most U.S. institutions, there will also be various fees (for binding, microfilming, copyright registration, and the like), which must be paid before the degree will be granted. Once all the paperwork is in order, copies of the thesis may be made available in one or more university libraries. Specialist abstracting services exist to publicize the content of these beyond the institutions in which they are produced. Many institutions now insist on submission of digitized as well as printed copies of theses; the digitized versions of successful theses are often made available online.See also
*Explanatory notes
References
External links
* en.wikibooks.org/wiki/ETD Guide Guide to electronic theses and dissertations on