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The nobility of China was an important feature of the traditional social structure of
Ancient China The earliest known written records of the history of China date from as early as 1250 BC, from the Shang dynasty (c. 1600–1046 BC), during the reign of king Wu Ding. Ancient historical texts such as the ''Book of Documents'' (early chapter ...
and Imperial China. While the concepts of hereditary sovereign and peerage titles and
noble A noble is a member of the nobility. Noble may also refer to: Places Antarctica * Noble Glacier, King George Island * Noble Nunatak, Marie Byrd Land * Noble Peak, Wiencke Island * Noble Rocks, Graham Land Australia * Noble Island, Gr ...
families were featured as early as the semi-mythical, early historical period, a settled system of nobility was established from the Zhou dynasty. In the subsequent
millennia A millennium (plural millennia or millenniums) is a period of one thousand years, sometimes called a kiloannum (ka), or kiloyear (ky). Normally, the word is used specifically for periods of a thousand years that begin at the starting point (ini ...
, this system was largely maintained in form, with some changes and additions, although the content constantly evolved. After the Song dynasty, most bureaucratic offices were filled through the
imperial examination system The imperial examination (; lit. "subject recommendation") refers to a civil-service examination system in Imperial China, administered for the purpose of selecting candidates for the state bureaucracy. The concept of choosing bureaucrats by ...
, undermining the power of the hereditary aristocracy. Historians have noted the disappearance by 1000 AD of the powerful clans that had dominated China. The last, well-developed system of noble titles was established under the Qing dynasty. The Republican Revolution of 1911 ended the official imperial system. Though some noble families maintained their titles and dignity for a time, new political and economic circumstances forced their decline. Today, the nobility as a class has virtually disappeared.


Sovereign and ruling family ranks

The apex of the nobility is the sovereign. The title of the sovereign has changed over time, together with the connotations of the respective titles. In Chinese history are generally 3 levels of supreme and fully independent sovereignty or high, significantly autonomous sovereignty above the next lower category of ranks, the
aristocracy Aristocracy (, ) is a form of government that places strength in the hands of a small, privileged ruling class, the aristocrats. The term derives from the el, αριστοκρατία (), meaning 'rule of the best'. At the time of the word's ...
who usually recognized the overlordship of a higher sovereign or ruled a semi-independent, tributary, or independent realm of self-recognized insufficient importance in size, power, or influence to claim a sovereign title, such as a Duchy which in Western terms would be called a Duchy, Principality, or some level of
Chiefdom A chiefdom is a form of hierarchical political organization in non-industrial societies usually based on kinship, and in which formal leadership is monopolized by the legitimate senior members of select families or 'houses'. These elites form a ...
. The broadest sovereign is what gets translated as the single term
emperor An emperor (from la, imperator, via fro, empereor) is a monarch, and usually the sovereign ruler of an empire or another type of imperial realm. Empress, the female equivalent, may indicate an emperor's wife ( empress consort), mother (emp ...
in English. An emperor might appoint or confirm or tolerate subsovereigns or tributary rulers styled kings. As a title of nobility, Ba Wang,
hegemon Hegemony (, , ) is the political, economic, and military predominance of one state over other states. In Ancient Greece (8th BC – AD 6th ), hegemony denoted the politico-military dominance of the ''hegemon'' city-state over other city-states. ...
, recognized overlordship of several subordinate kings while refraining from claiming the title of emperor within the imperium of the Chinese subcontinent, such as its borders were considered from era to era. Sovereigns holding the title of king of an individual state within and without the shifting borders of the Chinese imperium might be fully independent heads of foreign nations, such as the
King of Korea This is a list of monarchs of Korea, arranged by dynasty. Names are romanized according to the South Korean Revised Romanization of Korean. McCune–Reischauer romanizations may be found at the articles about the individual monarchs. Gojoseon G ...
who might, in some cases, be subordinate to foreign emperors just as territorial or tribal sovereign Mongol
khans Khan may refer to: *Khan (inn), from Persian, a caravanserai or resting-place for a travelling caravan * Khan (surname), including a list of people with the name *Khan (title), a royal title for a ruler in Mongol and Turkic languages and used by ...
might be subject to one of several Khagans or Great khans. Confusingly, some Chinese emperors styled many or all close male relatives of certain kinds such as brothers, uncles, or nephews as wang, a term for king, using it as a courtesy title. However, Chinese histories since ancient works such as Shiji were also fairly liberal in terming local tribal chiefs as "king" of a particular territory ranging from vast to tiny, using convenient terms of the form "(locality)" + "(king)" such as Changshawang, "King of
Changsha Changsha (; ; ; Changshanese pronunciation: (), Standard Mandarin pronunciation: ) is the capital and the largest city of Hunan Province of China. Changsha is the 17th most populous city in China with a population of over 10 million, and th ...
" which was briefly recognized as a kingdom but was usually a smaller part of Chu state or just a county of the Sui dynasty state, or phrases such as Yiwang, " Yi (Eastern) Foreign ('barbarian') king(s)," while in other cases or by other authors other terms such as
usi USI or Usi may stand for: * Usi (food), a starch dish of the Urhobo people of Nigeria * Uši, an album by Czech band Uz jsme doma * Usi County, a county in westernmost Chagang province, North Korea * USI Tech, a suspected ponzi scheme * USI Wir ...
"native chief" might be used for the same office. The downward extensibility of terms for "king" in more casual usage also influences other allusive uses of these terms. In modern colloquial Chinese the term "king" is sometimes also used, roughly as loosely as in English, for such non-literal terms as mien da wang, "great king of noodles" for a pasta-lover, where an English-speaker might use such terms as
ing of the Road Ing, ING or ing may refer to: Art and media * '' ...ing'', a 2003 Korean film * i.n.g, a Taiwanese girl group * The Ing, a race of dark creatures in the 2004 video game '' Metroid Prime 2: Echoes'' * "Ing", the first song on The Roches' 1992 ...
Family members of individual sovereigns were also born to titles or granted specific titles by the sovereign, largely according to family tree proximity, including blood relatives and in-laws and adoptees of predecessors and older generations of the sovereign. Frequently, the parents of a new dynasty-founding sovereign would become elevated with sovereign or ruling family ranks, even if this was already a posthumous act at the time of the dynasty-founding sovereign's accession. Titles translated in English as "prince" and "princess" were generally immediate or recent descendants of sovereigns, with increasing distance at birth from an ancestral sovereign in succeeding generations resulting in degradations of the particular grade of prince or princess and finally degradation of posterity's ranks as a whole below that of prince and princess. Sovereigns of smaller states are typically styled with lesser titles of aristocracy such as Duke of a Duchy or Marquis rather than as hereditary sovereign Princes who do not ascend to kingship as in the European case of the
Principality of Monaco Monaco (; ), officially the Principality of Monaco (french: Principauté de Monaco; Ligurian: ; oc, Principat de Mónegue), is a sovereign city-state and microstate on the French Riviera a few kilometres west of the Italian region of Liguria ...
, and dynasties which gained or lost significant territory might change the titles of successive rulers from sovereign to aristocratic titles or vice versa, either by self-designation of the ruler or through imposed entitlement from a conquering state. For example, when Shu (state)'s kings were conquered by Qin (state), its Kaiming rulers became Marquises such as Marquis Hui of Shu who attempted a rebellion against Qin overlords in 301 BC.


Imperium (emperor and ennobled family)


Emperor

Although formally Tianzi, "The Son of Heaven," the power of the Chinese emperor varied between different emperors and different dynasties, with some emperors being absolute rulers and others being figureheads with actual power in the hands of court factions, eunuchs, the bureaucracy or noble families. * In the earliest, semi-mythical age, the sovereign was titled either ''huang'' (Chinese: 皇 huáng) or ''di'' (Chinese: 帝 dì). Together, these rulers were called the Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors. For the lists of the earliest, mythological rulers, both titles are conventionally translated in English as "Sovereigns" though individual rulers entitled either huang or di from this period are translated in English with the title "Emperor" as these early mythological histories aim to feature the sovereigns of the evolving polity of the Chinese state, tracking those states which can best be claimed in a roughly continuous chain of imperial primacy interspersed with several periods of disunity such as the Spring and Autumn period, the Warring States Period, the Three Kingdoms Period, the
Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms The Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period (), from 907 to 979, was an era of political upheaval and division in 10th-century Imperial China. Five dynastic states quickly succeeded one another in the Central Plain, and more than a dozen concu ...
Period, the republican Chinese Civil War and so on. * The sovereigns during the Xia dynasty and Shang dynasty called themselves Di (Chinese: 帝 dì); rulers of these dynasties are conventionally translated with the title "king" and sometimes "emperor" in English even though the same term used in the mythologically previous dynasties is conventionally translated with the title "emperor" in English. * The sovereign during the Zhou dynasty called themselves Wang (Chinese: 王 or 國王; wáng), before the Qin dynasty innovated the new term huangdi which would become the new standard term for "emperor." The title "Wang" should not be confused with the common surname, which, at least by middle and later Chinese historical usage, has no definite royal implications. Rulers of these dynasties are conventionally translated with the title "king" and sometimes "emperor" in English. *
Emperor An emperor (from la, imperator, via fro, empereor) is a monarch, and usually the sovereign ruler of an empire or another type of imperial realm. Empress, the female equivalent, may indicate an emperor's wife ( empress consort), mother (emp ...
or Huangdi (皇帝, pinyin: huáng dì) was the title of the Chinese head of state of China from the Qin dynasty in 221 BC until the fall of the
Qing The Qing dynasty ( ), officially the Great Qing,, was a Manchu-led imperial dynasty of China and the last orthodox dynasty in Chinese history. It emerged from the Later Jin dynasty founded by the Jianzhou Jurchens, a Tungusic-speaki ...
dynasty in 1911. The first emperor of Qin ( Qin Shi Huang) combined the two characters ''huang'' (皇 "august, magnificent") and ''di'' (帝 "God, Royal Ancestor") from the mythological tradition and the Xia and Shang dynasties to form the new, grander title "Huangdi". Since the Han dynasty, ''Huangdi'' began to be abbreviated to ''huang'' or ''di''. The title of emperor was usually transmitted from father to son. Most often, the first-born son of the empress inherited the office, failing which the post was taken up by the first-born son of a concubine or consort of lower rank, but this rule was not universal and disputed succession was the cause of a number of civil wars. Unlike the case of Japan, the emperor's regime in traditional Chinese political theory allowed for a change in dynasty, and an emperor could be replaced by a rebel leader. This was because a successful rebel leader was believed to enjoy the Mandate of Heaven, while the deposed or defeated emperor had lost favour with the gods, and his mandate was over, a fact made apparent to all by his defeat.


Empress, consort, concubine and other imperial spouses

It was generally not accepted for a female to succeed to the throne as a sovereign regnant in her own right, rather than playing the role of a sovereign's consort or regent for a sovereign who was still a minor in age, so that in history of China there has only been one reigning empress, the
Empress Wu The asterisk ( ), from Late Latin , from Ancient Greek , ''asteriskos'', "little star", is a typographical symbol. It is so called because it resembles a conventional image of a heraldic star. Computer scientists and mathematicians often v ...
, whose reign occurred during (and actually caused) an interregnum of the Tang dynasty. However, there have been numerous cases in Chinese history where a woman was the actual power behind the imperial throne (see
éminence grise An ''éminence grise'' () or grey eminence is a powerful decision-maker or adviser who operates "behind the scenes", or in a non-public or unofficial capacity. This phrase originally referred to François Leclerc du Tremblay, the right-hand man ...
). Hou, Empress, actually Empress Consort in English terms, was a title granted to an official primary spouse of the polygamous male Chinese Emperor, and for the mother of the Emperor, typically elevated to this rank of Empress Dowager, bearing a senior title such as Tai Hou, Grand Empress, regardless of which spousal ranking she bore prior to the emperor's accession. In practice, many Chinese Empress Dowagers, either as official regent for a sovereign who was still a minor in age or from the influence of position within family social ranks, wielded great power or is historically considered to have been the effective wielder of supreme power in China, as in the case of
Empress Dowager Cixi Empress Dowager Cixi ( ; mnc, Tsysi taiheo; formerly romanised as Empress Dowager T'zu-hsi; 29 November 1835 – 15 November 1908), of the Manchu Yehe Nara clan, was a Chinese noblewoman, concubine and later regent who effectively controlle ...
, Regent of China considered de facto sovereign of China for 47 years during AD 1861–1908. Imperial Madams, ranking below Empress, aren't often distinguished in English from imperial Concubines, the next lower rank, but these were also titles of significance within the imperial household, and Imperial Madams might be translated as Consorts with the intention of distinguishing them from Empresses though all Empresses except the sole case of one Empress Regnant in Chinese history are technically Empress Consorts in English terms, primacy spouses of the Emperor Regnant who is actually invested with governmental rule.
Zhou li The ''Rites of Zhou'' (), originally known as "Officers of Zhou" () is a work on bureaucracy and organizational theory. It was renamed by Liu Xin to differentiate it from a chapter in the '' Book of History'' by the same name. To replace a lost ...
, the Rites of Zhou, states that Emperors are entitled to the following simultaneous spouses: * 1 Empress (皇后) * 3 Madames or Consorts (夫人) * 9 Imperial Concubines (嬪) * 27 Shifus (世婦) * 81 Imperial Wives (御妻)


Hegemony (hegemons and ennobled family)

Sovereigns styled Ba Wang,
hegemon Hegemony (, , ) is the political, economic, and military predominance of one state over other states. In Ancient Greece (8th BC – AD 6th ), hegemony denoted the politico-military dominance of the ''hegemon'' city-state over other city-states. ...
, asserted official overlordship of several subordinate kings while refraining from claiming the title of emperor within the imperium of the Chinese subcontinent, such as its borders were considered from era to era, as in the case of
Xiang Yu Xiang Yu (, –202 BC), born Xiang Ji (), was the Hegemon-King (Chinese: 霸王, ''Bà Wáng'') of Western Chu during the Chu–Han Contention period (206–202 BC) of China. A noble of the Chu state, Xiang Yu rebelled against the Qin dynas ...
who styled himself Xīchǔ Bàwáng, Western Chu Hegemon, appointing subordinate generals from his campaigns of conquest, including defeated ones, as Wang, kings of states within his hegemony.


Royalty (kings and ennobled family)

As noted above in the section discussing Emperors, the sovereigns during the Xia dynasty and Shang dynasty who called themselves Di (Chinese: 帝 dì) and during the Zhou dynasty who called themselves Wang (Chinese: 王 or 國王; wáng), was the title of the Chinese head of state until the Qin dynasty. The title "Wang" should not be confused with the common surname, which, at least by middle and later Chinese historical usage, has no definite royal implications. Rulers of these dynasties are conventionally translated with the title "king" and sometimes "emperor" in English.


Enfeoffing members of overthrown dynasties

It was a custom in China for the new dynasty to ennoble and enfeoff a member of the dynasty which they overthrew with a title of nobility and a fief of land so that they could offer sacrifices to their ancestors, in addition to members of other preceding dynasties. This practice was referred to as "the two crownings and three respects." When the Xia dynasty was overthrown by the Shang dynasty, Xia descendants were given a title and fiefs by the Shang King in the
Qi (Henan) Qi (, Old Chinese: ') was a minor feudal state in ancient China that existed from the beginning of the Shang Dynasty (16th century BCE) until the beginning of the Warring States period, c. 445 BCE. History The state of Qi was founded when the fi ...
, and
Zeng (state) Zeng () or Tsang was a historical state in China. The state existed during the time of the Zhou dynasty (1046–256 BC) and had territory in the area around Suizhou in modern Hubei province. Archaeological findings indicate that Zeng could have ...
. (The Kings of Yue (state) claimed to be a cadet branch of the Xia). When the Shang dynasty was overthrown by the Zhou dynasty, the Zhou King granted a Shang descendant the title of Duke and fief in the
Song (state) Song (; Old Chinese: *') was a state during the Zhou dynasty of ancient China, with its capital at Shangqiu. The state was founded soon after King Wu of Zhou conquered the Shang dynasty to establish the Zhou dynasty in 1046 BC. It was conque ...
, and the Zhou King also reconfirmed the titles of the Xia descendants in the Qi and Zeng. Confucius was a descendant of the Shang Kings via the Song Dukes and Confucius' descendants held the hereditary title
Duke Yansheng The Duke Yansheng, literally "Honorable Overflowing with Wisdom", sometimes translated as Holy Duke of Yen, was a Chinese title of nobility. It was originally created as a marquis title in the Western Han dynasty for a direct descendant o ...
right to 1935. When the Yue (state) King Wujiang (無彊) was conquered by
Chu (state) Chu, or Ch'u in Wade–Giles romanization, (, Hanyu Pinyin: Chǔ, Old Chinese: ''*s-r̥aʔ'') was a Zhou dynasty vassal state. Their first ruler was King Wu of Chu in the early 8th century BCE. Chu was located in the south of the Zhou h ...
, the Chu King enfeoffed Wujiang as Marquis of Ouyang Ting. When the Han dynasty Emperor Xian of Han was dethroned by the Cao Wei Emperor
Cao Pi Cao Pi () ( – 29 June 226), courtesy name Zihuan, was the first emperor of the state of Cao Wei in the Three Kingdoms period of China. He was the second son of Cao Cao, a warlord who lived in the late Eastern Han dynasty, but the eldest son ...
, Cao granted Emperor Xian the title Duke of Shanyang (山陽公). His grandson Liu Kang (劉康) inherited his dukedom, which lasted for 75 more years and two more dukes, Liu Jin (劉瑾) and Liu Qiu (劉秋), until the line was exterminated by invading Xiongnu tribes in about 309, during the Jin dynasty. The Emperors of Shu Han came from a cadet branch of the Han dynasty. When the Shu Han Emperor
Liu Shan Liu Shan () (207–271), courtesy name Gongsi, was the second and last emperor of the state of Shu Han during the Three Kingdoms period. As he ascended the throne at the age of 16, Liu Shan was entrusted to the care of the Chancellor Zhuge ...
was defeated by Cao Wei, the Cao Wei enfeoffed Liu Shan as the "Duke of Anle" (安樂公; literally meaning "duke of peace and comfort") while his sons and grandsons became marquises. Liu Shan died in 271 in Luoyang, and was given the posthumous name "Duke Si of Anle" (安樂思公; literally "the deep-thinking duke of Anle"). His dukedom lasted several generations during Wei's successor state, the Jin Dynasty, before being extinguished in the turmoils caused by the Wu Hu. When the Eastern Wu was defeated by the Jin Dynasty, the Jin Emperor granted the Eastern Wu Emperor
Sun Hao Sun Hao (243 – January or February 284), courtesy name Yuanzong, originally named Sun Pengzu with the courtesy name Haozong, was the fourth and last emperor of the state of Eastern Wu during the Three Kingdoms period of China. He was the son ...
the title of "Marquis of Guiming". Sun Hao's sons were made junior officials in the Jin government. When the Jin Dynasty Emperor Gong of Jin was overthrown by the Liu Song
Emperor Wu of Liu Song Emperor Wu of (Liu) Song (()宋武帝; 16 April 363– 26 June 422), personal name Liu Yu (), courtesy name Dexing (), childhood name Jinu (),(皇考以高祖生有奇異,名為奇奴。皇妣既殂,養于舅氏,改為寄奴焉。) '' Song ...
, Emperor Wu enfeoffed Emperor Gong as Prince of Lingling. However Emperor Gong was ordered killed.
Sima Guang Sima Guang (17 November 1019 – 11 October 1086), courtesy name Junshi, was a Chinese historian, politician, and writer. He was a high-ranking Song dynasty scholar-official who authored the monumental history book ''Zizhi Tongjian''. Sima was ...
was a Jin Imperial family descendant who became a chancellor in the Song dynasty hundreds of years after the fall of the Jin. When the Liu Song Emperor Shun of Liu Song was overthrown by the
Southern Qi Qi, known in historiography as the Southern Qi ( or ) or Xiao Qi (), was a Chinese imperial dynasty and the second of the four Southern dynasties during the Northern and Southern dynasties era. It followed the Liu Song dynasty and was succeede ...
Emperor Gao of Southern Qi Emperor Gao of Southern Qi ((南)齊高帝; 427– 11 April 482According to Xiao Daocheng's biography in ''Book of Southern Qi'', he died aged 56 (by east Asian reckoning) on the ''renxu'' day of the 3rd month of the 4th year of the ''Jianyuan'' er ...
, Emperor Gao enfeoffed Emperor Shun as Prince of Ruyin. However Emperor Shun was killed. When the
Southern Qi Qi, known in historiography as the Southern Qi ( or ) or Xiao Qi (), was a Chinese imperial dynasty and the second of the four Southern dynasties during the Northern and Southern dynasties era. It followed the Liu Song dynasty and was succeede ...
Emperor He of Southern Qi was overthrown by the Liang dynasty Emperor Wu of Liang, Emperor Wu enfeoffed Emperor He as Prince of Baling. However Emperor He was killed. When the Liang dynasty
Emperor Jing of Liang Emperor Jing of Liang (; 543 – 5 May 558), personal name Xiao Fangzhi (), courtesy name Huixiang (), nickname Fazhen (), was an emperor of the Chinese Liang Dynasty. As the only surviving son of Emperor Yuan, he was declared emperor by the gen ...
was overthrown by the Chen dynasty Emperor Wu of Chen, Emperor Wu enfeoffed Emperor Jing as Prince of Jiangyin. However Emperor Jing was killed. The Xianbei
Tuoba The Tuoba (reconstructed Middle Chinese pronunciation: *''tʰak-bɛt''), also known as the Taugast or Tabgach ( otk, 𐱃𐰉𐰍𐰲 ''Tabγač''), was a Xianbei clan in Imperial China.Wei Shou. ''Book of Wei''. Vol. 1 During the Sixteen Kingd ...
royal family of Northern Wei started to arrange for Han Chinese elites to marry daughters of the royal family in the 480s. Some Han Chinese exiled royalty fled from southern China and defected to the Xianbei. Several daughters of the Xianbei
Emperor Xiaowen of Northern Wei Emperor Xiaowen of Northern Wei ((北)魏孝文帝) (October 13, 467 – April 26, 499), personal name né Tuoba Hong (拓拔宏), later Yuan Hong (元宏), was an emperor of the Northern Wei from September 20, 471 to April 26, 499. Under the r ...
were married to Han Chinese elites, the Han Chinese Liu Song royal Liu Hui 刘辉, married Princess Lanling 蘭陵公主 of the Northern Wei,. Princess Huayang 華陽公主 to Sima Fei 司馬朏, a descendant of Jin dynasty (266–420) royalty, Princess Jinan 濟南公主 to Lu Daoqian 盧道虔, Princess Nanyang 南阳长公主 to
Xiao Baoyin Xiao Baoyin () (487–530), courtesy name Zhiliang (智亮), was an imperial prince of the Chinese Southern Qi dynasty. In 502, as Southern Qi was on the edge of being taken over by the general Xiao Yan, who was preparing by killing the imperial p ...
萧宝夤, a member of
Southern Qi Qi, known in historiography as the Southern Qi ( or ) or Xiao Qi (), was a Chinese imperial dynasty and the second of the four Southern dynasties during the Northern and Southern dynasties era. It followed the Liu Song dynasty and was succeede ...
royalty.
Emperor Xiaozhuang of Northern Wei Emperor Xiaozhuang of Northern Wei (, 507–531; r. 528-530), personal name Yuan Ziyou (), courtesy name Yanda (彥達), was an emperor of China of the Xianbei-led Northern Wei dynasty. He was placed on the throne by General Erzhu Rong, who refuse ...
's sister the Shouyang Princess was wedded to The Liang dynasty ruler Emperor Wu of Liang's son Xiao Zong 蕭綜. When the Eastern Jin dynasty ended Northern Wei received the Jin prince Sima Chuzhi 司馬楚之 as a refugee. A Northern Wei Princess married Sima Chuzhi, giving birth to
Sima Jinlong Sima Jinlong (; after 420-484), courtesy name Rongze (榮則), was a Han– Xianbei prince and general of the Xianbei-led Northern Wei dynasty of China, whose tomb was discovered in the village of Shijia, Datong, Shanxi. Sima Jinlong was of mix ...
. Northern Liang King
Juqu Mujian Juqu Mujian (; before 420 – 447), named Juqu Maoqian (沮渠茂虔) in some sources, formally Prince Ai of Hexi (河西哀王), was a king of the Xiongnu-led Northern Liang dynasty of China—with most Chinese historians considering him the last ...
's daughter married Sima Jinlong. When the
Northern Qi Qi, known as the Northern Qi (), Later Qi (後齊) or Gao Qi (高齊) in historiography, was a Chinese imperial dynasty and one of the Northern dynasties during the Northern and Southern dynasties era. It ruled the eastern part of northern China ...
Emperor
Gao Heng Gao Heng (; 570–577), often known in history as the Youzhu of Northern Qi (, meaning 'child ruler'), was briefly an emperor of the Chinese Northern Qi dynasty. In 577, Northern Qi was under a major attack by rival Northern Zhou. Gao Heng's f ...
was overthrown by
Northern Zhou Zhou (), known in historiography as the Northern Zhou (), was a Xianbei-led dynasty of China that lasted from 557 to 581. One of the Northern dynasties of China's Northern and Southern dynasties period, it succeeded the Western Wei dynasty an ...
Emperor Wu of Northern Zhou, Emperor Wu enfeoffed Emperor Gao Heng as Duke of Wen. However Gao Heng was killed. When the
Northern Zhou Zhou (), known in historiography as the Northern Zhou (), was a Xianbei-led dynasty of China that lasted from 557 to 581. One of the Northern dynasties of China's Northern and Southern dynasties period, it succeeded the Western Wei dynasty an ...
Emperor Jing of Northern Zhou Emperor Jing of Northern Zhou ((北)周靜帝) (July or August 573 – 10 July 581), personally name né Yuwen Yan (宇文衍), later Yuwen Chan (宇文闡), was the last emperor of the Xianbei-led Chinese Northern Zhou dynasty. He became empero ...
was overthrown by the Sui dynasty Emperor Wen of Sui, Emperor Wen enfeoffed Emperor Jing as Duke of Jie. However, he had all of close male clansmen of the duke—all grandsons of Emperor Jing's great-grandfather Yuwen Tai—put to death, as well as Emperor Jing's brothers Yuwen Kan (宇文衎) the Duke of Lai and Yuwen Shu (宇文術) the Duke of Yan. About three months later, Emperor Wen had the Duke of Jie secretly assassinated as well, but pretended to be shocked and declared a mourning period, and then buried him with honors due an emperor. The dukedom was passed to a distant relative, Yuwen Luo (宇文洛). When the Western Liang (Southern and Northern Dynasties) (西梁)
Emperor Jing of Western Liang Emperor Jing of (Western) Liang ((西)梁靖帝, as later honored by Xiao Xi in 617), personal name Xiao Cong (蕭琮), courtesy name Wenwen (溫文), known during the Sui dynasty as the Duke of Ju (莒公) then Duke of Liang (梁公), was the ...
was overthrown by the Sui dynasty Emperor Wen of Sui, Emperor Wen enfeoffed Emperor Jing as Duke of Ju (莒公) and then as Duke of Liang (梁公). His nephew Xiao Ju (蕭鉅) inherited the title of Duke of Liang. When the Chen dynasty Emperor
Chen Shubao Chen Shubao (, 10 December 553 – 16 December 604), also known as Houzhu of Chen (), posthumous name Duke Yáng of Chángchéng (), courtesy name Yuánxiù (元秀), childhood name Huángnú (黃奴), was the fifth and last emperor of the Chinese ...
was overthrown by the Sui dynasty Emperor Wen of Sui, Emperor Wen enfeoffed Chen Shubao as Duke Yang of Changcheng (長城煬公). The Tang dynasty Emperors claimed descent from the Dukes of
Western Liang (Sixteen Kingdoms) The Western Liang (; 400–421) was a state of the Sixteen Kingdoms in China, one of the "Five Liang" (''Wu Liang'') of this era. Western Liang was founded by the Li family of the Han Chinese. The founder of the Tang Dynasty, Li Yuan ( Emperor G ...
(西涼) and posthumously gave them Imperial titles. When the Tang dynasty
Emperor Ai of Tang Emperor Ai of Tang (27 October 89226 March 908), also known as Emperor Zhaoxuan of Tang (), born Li Zuo, later known as Li Chu (), was the last emperor of the Tang dynasty of China. He reigned—as but a puppet ruler—from 904 to 907. Emper ...
was overthrown by the Later Liang Emperor Zhu Wen, Zhu Wen enfeoffed Emperor Ai as Prince of Jiyin. However Emperor Ai was killed. There were Dukedoms for the offspring of the royal families of the Zhou dynasty, Sui dynasty, and Tang dynasty in the
Later Jin (Five Dynasties) Jin, known as the Later Jìn (, 936–947) or the Shi Jin (石晉) in historiography, was an imperial dynasty of China and the third of the Five Dynasties during the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period. It was founded by Shi Jingtang (Emp ...
. When the
Wuyue Wuyue (; ), 907–978, was an independent coastal kingdom founded during the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period (907–960) of Chinese history. It was ruled by the Haiyan Qian clan (海盐钱氏), whose family name remains widespread in th ...
King
Qian Chu Qian Chu (September 29, 929 – October 7, 988, courtesy name Wende), known as Qian Hongchu before 960, was the last king of Wuyue, reigning from 947 until 978 when he surrendered his kingdom to the Song dynasty. Life Qian Chu came to power aft ...
surrendered to the Song dynasty the Song
Emperor Taizong of Song Zhao Jiong (20 November 939 – 8 May 997), known as Zhao Guangyi from 960 to 977 and Zhao Kuangyi before 960, also known by his temple name Taizong after his death, was the second emperor of the Song dynasty of China. He reigned from 976 to h ...
raised the prefecture of Yangzhou to the nominal state of Huaihai, and installed Qian Chu as King of Huaihai. In 984, Qian Chu was made King of Hannan (a smaller nominal feoff) instead, and in 987 reduced again to King of Hanyang, with the right to take up residence in Hanyang, but then immediately additionally created Prince of Xu, with an enlarged fief. In 988, Qian Chu lost his title as king and was made Prince of Deng instead, with a larger nominal fief and actual income. When the Jin dynasty (1115–1234) defeated the Liao dynasty and
Northern Song Dynasty Northern may refer to the following: Geography * North, a point in direction * Northern Europe, the northern part or region of Europe * Northern Highland, a region of Wisconsin, United States * Northern Province, Sri Lanka * Northern Range, a ...
Emperor Tianzuo of Liao and Emperor Qinzong of Song were first enfeoffed with derogatory titles by the Jin, with Emperor Tianzuo becoming the Prince of Haibin 海滨王 ("Seashore Prince") and Emperor Qinzong becoming the Marquess of Chonghun (重昏, "Doubly muddled"); his father received a similarly derogatary-sounding title. In 1141, as the Jin relations with the Southern Song were about to normalized, Qinzong's captors granted him a neutrally-sounding title of the Duke (公, gong) of Tianshui Jun, after a commandery in the upper reaches of the Wei River (now in Gansu), while his father (who had died in 1135) was posthumously styled the Prince of ''Tianshui Jun''; a few months later he started receiving a stipend due to his rank. Liao royal family members who stayed in the Jin state like Yelu Lu and his son
Yelü Chucai Yelü Chucai (; mn, Urtu Saqaltu "Longbeard", written in Chinese characters as "", July 24, 1190 – June 20, 1244), courtesy name Jinqing (), was a Khitan statesman from the imperial clan of the Liao dynasty, who became a vigorous adviser and ...
served the Jin and then the Yuan dynasty as officials. Other members of the Khitan Liao royal family like
Yelü Dashi Yelü Dashi (; alternatively ), courtesy name Zhongde (), also known by his temple name as the Emperor Dezong of Western Liao (), was the founder of the Western Liao dynasty (Qara Khitai). He initially ruled as king from 1124 to 1132, then as e ...
and Song Imperial family like
Emperor Gaozong of Song Emperor Gaozong of Song (12 June 1107 – 9 November 1187), personal name Zhao Gou, courtesy name Deji, was the tenth emperor of the Song dynasty and the first of the Southern Song period, ruling between 1127 and 1162 and retaining power as re ...
both survived to rule the
Kara-Khitan Khanate The Qara Khitai, or Kara Khitai (), also known as the Western Liao (), officially the Great Liao (), was a Sinicized dynastic regime based in Central Asia ruled by the Khitan Yelü clan. The Qara Khitai is considered by historians to be an ...
and Southern Song dynasty respectively. When the
Kingdom of Dali The Dali Kingdom, also known as the Dali State (; Bai: Dablit Guaif), was a state situated in modern Yunnan province, China from 937 until 1253. In 1253, it was conquered by the Mongols but members of its former ruling dynasty continued to a ...
was conquered by the Yuan dynasty, King Duan Xingzhi of Dali was then enfeoffed as Maharaja by the Yuan Emperor Kublai Khan. The Southern Song dynasty Emperor Gong of Song was enfeoffed as the Duke of Ying (瀛國公) by Kublai Khan, however, the Emperor Yingzong of Yuan ordered him to commit suicide. The Song Prince
Zhao Yurui Zhao may refer to: * Zhao (surname) (赵), a Chinese surname ** commonly spelled Chao in Taiwan or up until the early 20th century in other regions ** Chiu, from the Cantonese pronunciation ** Cho (Korean surname), represent the Hanja 趙 (Chinese ...
was enfeoffed with the title Duke of Pingyuan Canton (平原郡公) by Emperor Kublai Khan. Other Song Imperial family members like Zhao Mengfu and Zhao Yong were left alive by the Yuan. Zhao Yiguang was a Song Imperial family descendant who was a writer during the Ming dynasty. When the Ming dynasty fell and the Qing dynasty took over, the Qing Emperors granted a Ming descendant the title
Marquis of Extended Grace The Marquis of Extended Grace was a title held by a descendant of the imperial family of the Ming dynasty (1368–1644) during the subsequent Qing dynasty (1644–1912). Holders of this title were also called the Marquis of Zhu from the surname ...
and gave him a stipend to perform sacrifices to his ancestors, the Ming Emperors at the Ming Imperial Tombs. The Qing granted Zheng Keshuang of the
Kingdom of Tungning The Kingdom of Tungning (), also known as Tywan by the British at the time, was a dynastic maritime state that ruled part of southwestern Taiwan and the Penghu islands between 1661 and 1683. It is the first predominantly Han Chinese state in T ...
the title of "Duke of Haicheng" (海澄公) after he surrendered to the Qing. When the
Northern Yuan The Northern Yuan () was a dynastic regime ruled by the Mongol Borjigin clan based in the Mongolian Plateau. It existed as a rump state after the collapse of the Yuan dynasty in 1368 and lasted until its conquest by the Jurchen-led Later Jin ...
Chahar Borjigin Mongol Khan
Ejei Khan Erke Khongghor ( mn, Эрх Хонгор; ), alternatively known as Ejei ( mn, Эжэй; ; "Ejei" means "lord" in the Mongolian language), (?–1641) was the last khagan of the Northern Yuan dynasty, ruling briefly from 1634 to 1635. He was the so ...
surrendered to the Qing, he was given the title of Prince of the first rank (Qin Wang, 親王), a title he held until his death in 1661, and inherited by his younger brother Abunai (阿布奈). Abunai openly showed his discontent toward the
Manchu The Manchus (; ) are a Tungusic East Asian ethnic group native to Manchuria in Northeast Asia. They are an officially recognized ethnic minority in China and the people from whom Manchuria derives its name. The Later Jin (1616–1636) and ...
and he was put under house arrest in Shenyang by the
Kangxi Emperor The Kangxi Emperor (4 May 1654– 20 December 1722), also known by his temple name Emperor Shengzu of Qing, born Xuanye, was the third emperor of the Qing dynasty, and the second Qing emperor to rule over China proper, reigning from 1661 to 1 ...
in 1669 and his imperial title / rank was given to his son Borni (布尔尼) in September of that same year. Borni (布尔尼) was careful to not show any sign of disrespecting the Qing Dynasty, but finally in 1675, he suddenly rebelled along with his younger brother Lubuzung (罗布藏), capitalizing on the
Revolt of the Three Feudatories The Revolt of the Three Feudatories, () also known as the Rebellion of Wu Sangui, was a rebellion in China lasting from 1673 to 1681, during the early reign of the Kangxi Emperor (r. 1661–1722) of the Qing dynasty (1644–1912). The revolt was ...
. However, they had made a serious miscalculation in wrongfully believing that other Mongols would join them, when in reality only three thousand
Chahar (Mongols) The Chahars (Khalkha Mongolian: Цахар, Tsahar; ) are a subgroup of Mongols that speak Chakhar Mongolian and predominantly live in southeastern Inner Mongolia, China. The Chahars were originally one of estates of Kublai Khan located around ...
joined the rebellion. It only took a single decisive battle on April 20, 1675 to defeat Abunai (阿布奈) and his followers, who were all killed subsequently in their retreat. The Qing Dynasty's punishment of the rebellion was very harsh: all royal males of
Chahar (Mongols) The Chahars (Khalkha Mongolian: Цахар, Tsahar; ) are a subgroup of Mongols that speak Chakhar Mongolian and predominantly live in southeastern Inner Mongolia, China. The Chahars were originally one of estates of Kublai Khan located around ...
were executed, including infants born to Qing / Manchu princesses, and all royal females of
Chahar (Mongols) The Chahars (Khalkha Mongolian: Цахар, Tsahar; ) are a subgroup of Mongols that speak Chakhar Mongolian and predominantly live in southeastern Inner Mongolia, China. The Chahars were originally one of estates of Kublai Khan located around ...
were sold to slavery except these Qing / Manchu princesses. The Republic of China allowed the last Qing Emperor to stay in the Forbidden City and keep his title, treating him as a foreign monarch until 1924. The descendants of Confucius were maintained in the title of
Duke Yansheng The Duke Yansheng, literally "Honorable Overflowing with Wisdom", sometimes translated as Holy Duke of Yen, was a Chinese title of nobility. It was originally created as a marquis title in the Western Han dynasty for a direct descendant o ...
until 1935 when the title was changed to Sacrificial Official to Confucius (大成至聖先師奉祀官), which remains as a position to this day, currently held by Kung Tsui-chang.


Pre-imperial aristocracy

The Zhou dynasty not only preceded the full unification of early China under the Qin dynasty, the first empire whose realm would subsequently be considered to extend broadly enough to be national in the context of the territorial concept of China, the
Zhouli The ''Rites of Zhou'' (), originally known as "Officers of Zhou" () is a work on bureaucracy and organizational theory. It was renamed by Liu Xin to differentiate it from a chapter in the ''Book of History'' by the same name. To replace a lost ...
, Rites of Zhou were subsequently canonized by Confucius among his Confucian
Chinese classics Chinese classic texts or canonical texts () or simply dianji (典籍) refers to the Chinese texts which originated before the imperial unification by the Qin dynasty in 221 BC, particularly the "Four Books and Five Classics" of the Neo-Confucian ...
as a model precedent in principles of government, so ranks of nobility in later regimes both in periods of unified sovereignty and of competing smaller states would typically draw from its catalog of peerage. From Zhouli, later Confucian political philosophy and government publications, and from the surrounding historical literature of particular individuals, localities and events, the following social classifications have been attested.


Honors and awards, and clan law, of the Zhou dynasty

The social system of the Zhou dynasty is sometimes referred to as the Chinese proto- feudalism and was the combination of Fengjian (honors and awards) and ''Zongfa'' (clan law). Male subjects were classified into, in descending order of rank: *the nobles – ''Zhuhou'' (諸侯 pinyin zhū hóu), *the gentlemen ministers (of the royal court) – ''Qing'' (卿 qīng), *the gentlemen bureaucrats – ''Daifu'' (大夫 dà fū) *the
yeomen Yeoman is a noun originally referring either to one who owns and cultivates land or to the middle ranks of servants in an English royal or noble household. The term was first documented in mid-14th-century England. The 14th century also witn ...
– ''Shi'' (士 shì) *the
commoner A commoner, also known as the ''common man'', ''commoners'', the ''common people'' or the ''masses'', was in earlier use an ordinary person in a community or nation who did not have any significant social status, especially a member of neither ...
s – ''Shumin'' (庶民 shù mín). ''Zongfa'' (宗法, clan law), which applied to all social classes, governed the primogeniture of rank and succession of other siblings. The eldest son of the
consort __NOTOC__ Consort may refer to: Music * "The Consort" (Rufus Wainwright song), from the 2000 album ''Poses'' * Consort of instruments, term for instrumental ensembles * Consort song (musical), a characteristic English song form, late 16th–ear ...
would inherit the title and retained the same rank within the system. Other sons from the consort, concubines and
mistresses Mistress is the feminine form of the English word "master" (''master'' + ''-ess'') and may refer to: Romance and relationships * Mistress (lover), a term for a woman who is in a sexual and romantic relationship with a man who is married to a d ...
would be given titles one rank lower than their father. As time went by, all terms had lost their original meanings nonetheless. ''Qing'' (卿), ''Daifu'' (大夫) and ''Shi'' (士) became synonyms of court officials. Physicians were often called ''Daifu'' during the
Late Imperial China The earliest known written records of the history of China date from as early as 1250 BC, from the Shang dynasty (c. 1600–1046 BC), during the reign of king Wu Ding. Ancient historical texts such as the ''Book of Documents'' (early chapter ...
. Referring to a male or self-reference of a male as ''Gongzi'' eventually became a way to raise one's ''mianzi'' (refer to
Face (social concept) Face is a class of behaviors and customs practiced mainly in Asian cultures, associated with the morality, honor, and authority of an individual (or group of individuals), and its image in social groups. Face refers to a sociological concept i ...
), and would indeed be considered flattery today.


Peer ranks of the Zhou dynasty

Under the Zhou dynasty were ''Wǔděngjuéwèi'' (), five (aristocratic) peerage ranks (abbreviated ''Wǔjué'') below the royal ranks in the following descending order from higher to lower rank:


Male aristocracy

* Duke (), which especially featured sovereign family members, though after changes of lines within an imperial or royal House or between dynasties, or through internal adoptions or coups, a duchy's current rulers might have been severed from current imperial or royal sovereigns and have become a distinct lineage of their own; high dukes might be styled, though not explicit "royal dukes" as in the English peerage. A Chinese royal duke might be a clan prince or (courtesy title) family "king" under the emperor while simultaneously holding a Duchy, whether enfeoffed with land or without portfolio. A character whose fundamental meaning is "public", ''gōng'' is also used in titles, ordinary names, and honorific names including deified stylings in ways other than indicating the peerage rank of duke. * Marquis (), usually with the same emphasis on being a national borderland march lord as with the European title
marquess A marquess (; french: marquis ), es, marqués, pt, marquês. is a nobleman of high hereditary rank in various European peerages and in those of some of their former colonies. The German language equivalent is Markgraf (margrave). A woman wi ...
. * Count () * Viscount (), which is also extensively used in Chinese nicknames as the meaning of the character is "child," as well as in courtesy names and honorific names in which context the character came to mean "master" as in Kongfuzi or Kongzi, Confucius, Master of surname Kung, or the Daoist patriarch Laozi, Old Master. * Baron (), which is also used outside of its use as a peerage term to indicate male gender in individual names and in classifications such as "men", as the character's fundamental meaning is "male".


Female aristocracy

Titles of female members of the aristocracies varied in different dynasties and eras, each having unique classifications for the spouses of the emperor. Any female member excluding a spouse of an emperor can be called a princess or ''gōngzhǔ'' (公主), and incorporated her associated place into her title if she had one.


Other titles and honorifics

Besides the systematized ranks listed above, there were also other familial appellations used as titles, e.g. ''Shu'' (叔, paternal younger uncle) or ''Jiu'' (舅, maternal uncle). Sons of kings who did not receive other titles were generically called ''Wangzi'' (王子, king's son), and their children ''Wangsun'' (王孫, king's grandson). Similarly, sons and grandsons of dukes and lords are called ''Gongzi'' (公子, duke's son) and ''Gongsun'' (公孫, duke's grandson). These honorifics occasionally became heritable titles, no longer indicating relation with the reigning king. And some clans even took them as family names. ''Gongzi'' eventually evolved into the generic honorific for all young gentry. Today it is either used as a flattering way to address an interlocutor's son, or an pejorative term for a wealthy man. ''Wangzi'', on the other hand, is used today as the generic translation for foreign princes (in the sense of a monarch's son, as opposed to a sui generis title).


Chu nobility

The southern state of Chu had a notably distinct culture from the central plain states, including the nobility system. The royal Xiong clan and its collateral branches of Qu, Jing and Zhao formed the main aristocracy of Chu. Besides the royal clans, Chu did not have a system of nobility early on. Chu's formal system of rank only appeared around the late Spring and Autumn period, with such titles as ''Tonghou'' (通侯, lit. marquis-peer), ''Zhigui'' (執珪, lit. jade scepter bearer), ''Zhibo'' (執帛, lit. silk bearer). Noble ranks come with a state stipend, and holders of the highest ranks also received fiefs and the honorific title ''Jun'' (君, lord), e.g.
Lord Chunshen Lord Chunshen (; died 238 BC), born Huang Xie (),was a Chinese military general and politician. He served as the Prime Minister of the Kingdom of Chu during the late Warring States period of ancient China. He was one of the Four Lords of the Wa ...
. Noble titles in Chu were bestowed primarily as reward for military and civil service, and were not heritable in principle. Prior to the systematization of ranks in early Han dynasty,
Liu Bang Emperor Gaozu of Han (256 – 1 June 195 BC), born Liu Bang () with courtesy name Ji (季), was the founder and first emperor of the Han dynasty, reigning in 202–195 BC. His temple name was "Taizu" while his posthumous name was Emper ...
, being of Chu origin, also awarded distinctly Chu titles.


After the Zhou dynasty


Qin and Han dynasty

Prior to the Qin dynasty, ''Wang'' (sovereign) was the title for the ruler of whole China. Under him were the vassals or ''Zhuhou'' (諸侯), who held territories granted by a succession of Zhou dynasty kings. They had the duty to support the Zhou king during an emergency and were ranked according to the Five Orders of Nobility. In the Spring and Autumn period, the Zhou kings had lost most of their powers, and the most powerful vassals became the de facto ruler of China. Finally, in the Warring States period, most vassals declared themselves ''Wang'' or kings, and regarded themselves as equal to the Zhou king. After Zheng, king of the state of Qin, later known as Qin Shi Huang, defeated all the other vassals and unified China, he adopted the new title of ''Huangdi'' (emperor). Qin Shi Huang eliminated noble titles, as he sponsored legalism which believed in merit, not birth. He forced all nobles to the capital, seized their lands and turned them into administrative districts with the officials ruling them selected on merit. After the demise of Qin Er Shi, the last Qin ruler to use the title ''Huangdi'' (his successor
Ziying Ziying, King of Qin (, died January 206  BC) was the third and last ruler of the Qin dynasty. He ruled over a fragmented Qin Empire for 46 days, from mid-October to early December 207  BC. He is referred to in some sources with t ...
used the title King of Qin rather than Emperor),
Xiang Yu Xiang Yu (, –202 BC), born Xiang Ji (), was the Hegemon-King (Chinese: 霸王, ''Bà Wáng'') of Western Chu during the Chu–Han Contention period (206–202 BC) of China. A noble of the Chu state, Xiang Yu rebelled against the Qin dynas ...
styled himself Hegemon King of Western Chu (Xichu Bàwáng 西楚霸王) rather than Emperor. Xiang Yu gave King Huai II of Chu the title of ''Emperor of Chu'' (楚義帝) or ''The Righteous Emperor of Southern Chu'' (南楚義帝) and awarded the rest of his allies, including
Liu Bang Emperor Gaozu of Han (256 – 1 June 195 BC), born Liu Bang () with courtesy name Ji (季), was the founder and first emperor of the Han dynasty, reigning in 202–195 BC. His temple name was "Taizu" while his posthumous name was Emper ...
, titles and a place to administer. Xiang Yu gave Liu Bang the Principality of Han, and he would soon replace him as the ruler of China. The founder of the Han dynasty, Liu Bang, continued to use the title ''Huangdi''. In order to appease his wartime allies, he gave each of them a piece of land as their own "kingdom" ( Wangguo) along with a title of ''Wang''. He eventually killed all of them and replaced them with members of his family. These kingdoms remained effectively independent until the Rebellion of the Seven States. Since then, ''Wang'' became merely the highest hereditary title, which roughly corresponded to the title of prince, and, as such, was commonly given to relatives of the emperor. The title ''Gong'' also reverted purely to a peerage title, ranking below ''Wang''. Those who bore such titles were entirely under the auspices of the emperor, and had no ruling power of their own. The two characters combined to form the rank, ''Wanggong'', grew to become synonymous with all higher court officials. The title of Duke of Song and ''"Duke Who Continues and Honours the Yin"'' ( 殷紹嘉公) were bestowed upon Kong An 孔安 (東漢) by the Eastern Han dynasty because he was part of the Shang dynasty's legacy. This branch of the Confucius family is a separate branch from the line that held the title of Marquis of Fengsheng village and later Duke Yansheng. The Han dynasty bestowed the hereditary title 周子南君 upon the Zhou dynasty royal descendant Ji Jia 姬嘉 and his descendants. Family tree of Chinese nobility from the Han dynasty to the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period. ( 中國士族世系圖列表)


Between Han and Sui

Nine-rank system The nine-rank system, also known as the nine-grade controller system, was used to categorize and classify government officials in Imperial China. Created in the state of Cao Wei during the Three Kingdoms, it was used until the Song dynasty, and ...
Dishu system ''Dishu'' () was an important legal and moral system involving marriage and inheritance in ancient China. In pre-modern eras, upper-class men in ancient China, Korea, Vietnam and Japan often had more than one spouse to ensure the birth of a male ...
Special "commanderies of immigrants" and "white registers" were created for the massive amount of northern-origin Han Chinese who moved south during the Eastern Jin dynasty. The southern Chinese aristocracy was formed from the offspring of these migrants.
Celestial Masters The Way of the Celestial Masters is a Chinese Daoist movement that was founded by Zhang Daoling in 142 AD. Its followers rebelled against the Han Dynasty, and won their independence in 194. At its height, the movement controlled a theocratic state ...
and the nobility of northern China subdued the nobility of southern China during the Western Jin (the
Jiangnan Jiangnan or Jiang Nan (; formerly romanized Kiang-nan, literally "South of the River" meaning "South of the Yangtze") is a geographic area in China referring to lands immediately to the south of the lower reaches of the Yangtze River, incl ...
region specifically) and Eastern Jin periods. Southern China became the most populous region of China after the depopulation of the north and the migration of northern Chinese to southern China. Different waves of migration of aristocratic Chinese from northern China to the south at different times resulted in distinct groups of lineages, with some lineages arriving in the 300s-400s and others in the 800s-900s. Literati of all ethnicities seemed to be regarded as Han Chinese, because even ethnic Xianbei affiliated with the Northern Wei were referred to (insultingly) as "damned Chinese" by the Northern Qi elites from the Northern Garrisons. Examples of individuals appearing as culturally Xianbei and at the same time declaring Han Chinese ancestry was Gao Huan and the Han family. The Han Chinese Gao family of Bohai ( 渤海高氏) was claimed by Gao Huan as his ancestors. Gao was of Han Chinese background but Xianbei-acculturated. He was raised in Huaishuozhen while his family came from Bohai prefecture in modern Hebei. He was culturally Xianbei since his clan was raised in Inner Mongolia after being relocated from what is modern Hebei (Bohai) where his Han Chinese ancestors lived. Honorary Bohai descent was bestowed upon Gao Longshi by Gao Huan. Bohai was asserted as the ancestral home of Gao Huan by Gao Huan. Huaibei was the geographic origin of the Zhou of Runan 汝南周氏 who were part of the Eastern Jin dynasty. The Linghu of Dunhuang 敦煌令狐氏 were descended from King Wen of Zhou through his son Duke Gao of Bi 畢公高. The Yan of Langye 琅邪顏氏 spawned
Yan Zhitui Yan Zhitui (, 531–591) courtesy name Jie () was a Chinese calligrapher, painter, musician, writer, philosopher and politician who served four different Chinese states during the late Northern and Southern dynasties: the Liang Dynasty in sout ...
. The Northern Wei's Eight Noble Xianbei surnames 八大贵族 were the Buliugu 步六孤, Helai 賀賴, Dugu 獨孤, Helou 賀樓, Huniu 忽忸, Qiumu 丘穆, Gexi 紇奚, and Yuchi 尉遲. They adopted Chinese last names. A fief of 100 households and the rank of 崇聖侯 ''Marquis who worships the sage'' was bestowed upon a Confucius descendant, Yan Hui's lineage had 2 of its scions and Confucius's lineage had 4 of its scions who had ranks bestowed on them in Shandong in 495 and a fief of ten households and rank of 崇聖大夫 ''Grandee who venerates the sage'' was bestowed on 孔乘 Kong Sheng who was Confucius's scion in the 28th generation in 472 by Emperor Xiaowen of Northern Wei. Despite the massacre
Cui Hao Cui Hao () (died 450 CE), courtesy name Boyuan (伯淵), was a ''shangshu'' of the Xianbei-led Northern Wei dynasty of China. Largely because of Cui's counsel, Emperor Taiwu of Northern Wei was able to unify northern China, ending the Sixteen Kin ...
's clan, the
Cui clan of Qinghe The Cui clan of Qinghe (清河崔氏) was an eminent Chinese family of high-ranking government officials and Confucian scholars. The clan's ancestral home was in Qinghe Commandery (清河郡), which covered parts of present-day Shandong and Hebei ...
survived into the Tang dynasty.


Sui dynasty and Tang dynasty

The aristocracy of the Tang era can be divided into 4 blocs, the most prestigious Northeastern (Shandong, which included Hebei, Henan, central Shanxi) bloc, the Northwestern (Guan-Long, or Shaanxi, southern and northern Shanxi) bloc, the Southern émigré clans, and the Southern native aristocrats. The Southern émigrés primarily emphasised Buddhism and belles lettres literature, while the other 3 blocs were more focused on Confucian Classics. Due to rebellions that plagued the south in late Northern and Southern dynasties, the Southerners were weaker than the Northerners, a situation exacerbated by the capital being in the north. The northeastern Chinese aristocracy during the Sui-Tang period was of pure Han blood, while they looked down upon the northwestern aristocracy which was of mixed Han and Xianbei blood. This hybrid mixed blood Chinese and Northwestern (Guanlong) 關隴集團 aristocracy was the source of the Sui dynasty and Tang dynasty Imperial clans who were responsible for reuniting China. The northwest military aristocracy was the group from which the Sui dynasty Emperors originated; they emphasized that their patrilineal ancestry was ethnic Han, claiming descent from the Han official Yang Zhen. The
New Book of Tang The ''New Book of Tang'', generally translated as the "New History of the Tang" or "New Tang History", is a work of official history covering the Tang dynasty in ten volumes and 225 chapters. The work was compiled by a team of scholars of the So ...
traced his patrilineal ancestry to the Zhou dynasty kings via the Dukes of Jin. The Sui Emperors had maternal Xianbei ancestry from a woman of the Xianbei Dugu family. The Tang dynasty Imperial family claimed to be paternally descended from Laozi (whose personal name was Li Dan or Li Er), the Han dynasty General
Li Guang Li Guang (184-119 BC) was a Chinese military general of the Western Han dynasty. Nicknamed "Flying General" by the Xiongnu, he fought primarily in the campaigns against the nomadic Xiongnu tribes to the north of China. He was known to the Xiong ...
, Qin General
Li Xin Li Xin is the name of: * Li Xin (Qin) ( 220s BC), military general of the Qin state during the Warring States period * Li Xin (Western Liang) (died 420), ruler of Western Liang of the Sixteen Kingdoms * Li Xin (journalist) (born 1979), Chinese jou ...
and Western Liang ruler
Li Gao Li Gao or Li Hao (; 351–417), courtesy name Xuansheng (), nickname Changsheng (), formally Prince Wuzhao of (Western) Liang (), was the founding duke of the Han Chinese state Western Liang. (While he claimed only the title of duke during his r ...
. This family was known as the Longxi Li lineage ( 隴西李氏). The Tang Emperors had Xianbei maternal ancestry, from Emperor Gaozu of Tang's Xianbei mother Duchess Dugu. Ancient Han ancestry was asserted by the Tang and Sui Emperors, while the admixture was the result of their Xianbei mothers, the Dugu clan. The Guanzhong noble families of Han Chinese background married the Northern Zhou Xianbei Yuwen family. The Northeastern aristocracy supported Wu Zetian while the Northwestern aristocracy opposed her. The northwestern aristocracy was countered by the northeastern aristocracy who were supported by the Sui Yangdi Emperor. However, political positions within both the northeastern and northwestern aristocracies was not uniform. During the Tang dynasty, nobles lost most of their power to the mandarins when imperial examination replaced the
nine-rank system The nine-rank system, also known as the nine-grade controller system, was used to categorize and classify government officials in Imperial China. Created in the state of Cao Wei during the Three Kingdoms, it was used until the Song dynasty, and ...
. The Anding origin noble Liang family produced
Liang Su Liang may refer to: Chinese history * Liang (state) (梁) (8th century BC – 641 BC), a Spring and Autumn period state * Wei (state) (403–225  BC), a Warring States period state, also known as Liang (梁) after moving its capital to Daliang * ...
, a Confucian scholar. An anti-meritocratic pro-aristocratic faction was led by Li Linfu. The Han Chinese noble families of Northeastern region dominated the Central Plains-based Northern Qi and Eastern Wei. A "marriage ban" was applied to the northeastern aristocracy by emperor Tang Taizong in an attempt to stop them from intermarrying further and reinforcing their prestige. However this policy backfired. During the Tang dynasty the Li family of Zhaojun 赵郡李氏, the
Cui clan of Boling The Cui clan of Boling (博陵崔氏) was a notable Chinese clan of noble descent which was politically active from the Han dynasty to the end of the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period. They shared the same ancestry as the Cui clan of Qinghe. T ...
, the
Cui clan of Qinghe The Cui clan of Qinghe (清河崔氏) was an eminent Chinese family of high-ranking government officials and Confucian scholars. The clan's ancestral home was in Qinghe Commandery (清河郡), which covered parts of present-day Shandong and Hebei ...
, the Lu clan of Fanyang, the Zheng family of Xingyang w:zh:荥阳郑氏, the Wang family of Taiyuan 太原王氏, and the Li family of Longxi 隴西李氏 were the seven noble families 七姓十家 between whom marriage was banned by law. Moriya Mitsuo wrote a history of the Later Han-Tang period of the Taiyuan Wang. Among the strongest families was the Taiyuan Wang. The prohibition on marriage between the clans issued in 659 by the Gaozong Emperor was flouted by the seven families since a woman of the Boling Cui married a member of the Taiyuan Wang, giving birth to the poet Wang Wei. He was the son of Wang Chulian who in turn was the son of Wang Zhou. The marriages between the families were performed clandestinely after the prohibition was implemented on the seven families by Gaozong. The Zhou dynasty King Ling's son Prince Jin is assumed by most to be the ancestor of the Taiyuan Wang. The Longmen Wang were a cadet line of the Zhou dynasty descended Taiyuan Wang, and Wang Yan and his grandson Wang Tong hailed from his cadet line. Both Buddhist monks and scholars hailed from the Wang family of Taiyuan such as the monk Tanqian. The Wang family of Taiyuan included Wang Huan. Their status as "Seven Great surnames" became known during Gaozong's rule. The Taiyuan Wang family produced Wang Jun who served under Emperor Huai of Jin. A Fuzhou-based section of the Taiyuan Wang produced the Buddhist monk Baizhang. Other clans included the Zhao of Tianshui 天水趙氏, the Gao of Bohai 渤海高氏, the Liu of Pengcheng 彭城劉氏, the Zhang of Qinghe 清河張氏, the Zhang of Nanyang 南陽張氏, the Pei of Hedong 河東裴氏, the Wei of Jingzhao 京兆韋氏, the Yang of Hongong 弘農楊氏, and the Wang of Langye 琅邪王氏. The Zheng family of Xingyang 滎陽鄭氏 claim descent from the Zhou dynasty Kings via the rulers of the State of Zheng. The Marquis of Xingyang rank was created for Zheng Xi. The Xingyang Zheng spawned Zheng Daozhao and Zheng Xi. Zheng Wanjun was a member of the Xingyang Zheng. The Xingyang Zheng spawned Zheng Yuzhong (Zheng Qiao). The Xingyang Zheng spawned Zheng Jiong. The Zheng of Xingyang may have been miswritten in the records as the Zheng of Rongyang. The bigger Longxi Li lineage outside of the Tang Imperial family has prominent members like
Li Jiongxiu Li Jiongxiu (李迥秀), courtesy name Maozhi (茂之), was a Chinese military general and politician of the Tang Dynasty and Wu Zetian's Zhou Dynasty, serving as chancellor during Wu Zetian's reign. Background It is not known when Li Jiongxiu wa ...
,
Li Yiyan Li Yiyan (李義琰) (died 688) was an official of the Chinese Tang Dynasty, serving as a chancellor during the reign of Emperor Gaozong. Background It is not known when Li Yiyan was born. His family was from Wei Prefecture (魏州, part of mod ...
,
Li Kui (chancellor) Li Kui (李揆) (711 – May 17, 784), courtesy name Duanqing (端卿), was a Chinese diplomat, historian, and politician during the Tang Dynasty, serving as a chancellor during the reign of Emperor Suzong. Background Li Kui was born in 711, at ...
,
Li Wei (Tang dynasty) Li Wei (; died November 20, 879Academia Sinicabr>Chinese-Western Calendar Converter''Zizhi Tongjian'', vol. 253.), courtesy name Maoxiu (), was an official of the Chinese Tang dynasty, serving as a chancellor during the reign of Emperor Xizong. ...
,
Li Fengji Li Fengji (; 758 – February 27, 835), courtesy name Xuzhou (虛舟), formally Duke Cheng of Zheng (鄭成公) or Duke Cheng of Liang (涼成公), was an official of the Chinese dynasty Tang Dynasty, serving as a chancellor during the reigns of E ...
,
Li Zhongyan Li Zhongyan (李仲言) (died December 16, 835Academia Sinica Chinese-Western Calendar Conver ...
, Li Jing (Tang dynasty), Li Zhaode, and Li Bai.
Cui Qun Cui Qun (崔群) (772 – August 30, 832''Old Book of Tang'', vol. 17, part 2.), courtesy name Dunshi (敦詩), was an official of the Chinese dynasty Tang Dynasty, serving as a chancellor during the reign of Emperor Xianzong. Background Cui Qu ...
was part of the
Cui clan of Qinghe The Cui clan of Qinghe (清河崔氏) was an eminent Chinese family of high-ranking government officials and Confucian scholars. The clan's ancestral home was in Qinghe Commandery (清河郡), which covered parts of present-day Shandong and Hebei ...
. The Tang Longxi lineage also included sub lineages like the Guzang Li (姑臧李), from which Li Zhuanmei 李專美 came from. The Zhaojun Li were written about by David Johnson while the Cui of Boling were written about by Patricia Ebrey. The cadet Canhuang Li were part of the Li of Zhaojun. The Li of Longxi produced Li Kuan 李觀 while the Li of Zhaojun produced Li Hua 李華. The Tianshui Zhao 天水趙氏. The Song dynasty Emperors hailed from the Guandong Zhao while the Longxi Li produced the Tang Emperors. The seven clans were divided into a further 44 sub branches. The Li of Zhaojun and the Lu of Fanyang hailed from Shandong and were related to the Liu clan which was also linked to the Yang of Hongnong and other clans of Guanlong. The Li of Zhaojun, Lu of Fanyang, Zheng of Yingyang 滎陽鄭氏 were of Shandong origin like the Wang of Taiyuan. The Yang of Hongnong 弘農楊氏 were asserted as ancestors by the Sui Emperors like the Longxi Li's were asserted as ancestors of the Tang Emperors. The Dukes of Jin were claimed as the ancestors of the Hongnong Yang. The Yang of Hongnong spawned 楊昭儉 Yang Zhaojian. This clan was the family of Yang Guozhong, Yang Guifei, and
Yang Wan Yang Wan (; died August 27, 777), courtesy name Gongquan (公權), was a Chinese historian, poet, and politician during the Tang dynasty, serving briefly as chancellor during the reign of Emperor Daizong. He was known for his frugality, and it w ...
Their ancestor was Yang Zhen who served during the reign of
Emperor An of Han Emperor An of Han (; 94 – 30 April 125) was an emperor of the Chinese Han Dynasty and the sixth emperor of the Eastern Han, ruling from 106 to 125. He was the grandson of Emperor Zhang. When her infant stepson Emperor Shang succeeded ...
. He is mentioned in the
Book of the Later Han The ''Book of the Later Han'', also known as the ''History of the Later Han'' and by its Chinese name ''Hou Hanshu'' (), is one of the Twenty-Four Histories and covers the history of the Han dynasty from 6 to 189 CE, a period known as the Later ...
. The Pei of Hedong 河東裴氏 produced Pei Qi. The Yang of Hongnong, Jia of Hedong, Xiang of Henei, and Wang of Taiyuan from the Tang dynasty were claimed as ancestors by Song dynasty lineages. The Zhou of Runan 汝南周氏 lived on after the Tang dynasty's collapse.
Meng Haoran Meng Haoran (; 689/691–740) was a major Tang dynasty poet, and a somewhat older contemporary of Wang Wei, Li Bai and Du Fu. Despite his brief pursuit of an official career, Meng Haoran mainly lived in and wrote about the area in which he wa ...
and
Meng Jiao Meng Jiao (751–814) was a Chinese poet during the Tang Dynasty. Two of his poems have been collected in the popular anthology '' Three Hundred Tang Poems''. Meng was the oldest of the Mid-Tang poets and is noted for the unusual forcefuln ...
were descendants of Mencius who lived during the Tang dynasty.


After Tang dynasty

Some Song dynasty families were descended from Tang era nobility. Some of the Tang dynasty Imperial family's cadet branches ended up in Fujian- one founded by Li Dan 李丹 which became prominent in the Song dynasty. another founded by Li Fu 李富 also becoming prominent during the Song dynasty. The Tang Longxi lineage also included sub lineages like the Guzang Li 姑臧李, from which Li Zhuanmei 李專美 came from, who served the Later Jin. Descendants of the Tang Emperors live in Chengcun village near the Wuyi mountains in Fujian. Subsequent dynasties expanded the hereditary titles further. Not all titles of peerage are hereditary, and the right to continue the heredity passage of a very high title was seen as a very high honour; at the end of the Qing dynasty, there were five grades of princes, amongst a myriad of other titles. For details, see
Qing dynasty nobility The Qing dynasty (1636–1912) of China developed a complicated peerage system for royal and noble ranks. Rule of inheritance In principle, titles were downgraded one grade for each generation of inheritance. * Direct imperial princes wit ...
. A few Chinese families enjoyed hereditary titles in the full sense, the chief among them being the Holy Duke of Yen (the descendant of Confucius); others, such as the lineal descendants of
Wen Tianxiang Wen Tianxiang (; June 6, 1236 – January 9, 1283), noble title Duke of Xin (), was a Chinese poet and politician in the last years of the Southern Song dynasty. For his resistance to Kublai Khan's invasion of the Southern Song dynasty, and for ...
, ennobled the Duke of Xingguo, not choosing to use their hereditary title. When the Ming dynasty emerged Emperor
Zhu Yuanzhang The Hongwu Emperor (21 October 1328 – 24 June 1398), personal name Zhu Yuanzhang (), courtesy name Guorui (), was the founding emperor of the Ming dynasty of China, reigning from 1368 to 1398. As famine, plagues and peasant revolts in ...
's military officers who served under him were given noble titles which privileged the holder with a stipend but in all other aspects was merely symbolic. (功臣世表)
Mu Ying Mu Ying (1345–1392) was a Chinese military general and politician during the Ming dynasty, and an adopted son of its founder, the Hongwu Emperor. When the Ming dynasty emerged, the Hongwu Emperor's military officers who served under him were g ...
's family was among them. Special rules against abuse of power were implemented on the nobles. Zengzi was a descendant of the Xia dynasty Kings through Shao Kang.
Duke Huan of Lu Duke Huan of Lu (, died 694 BC) was from 711 to 694 BC the 15th ruler of the State of Lu during the Spring and Autumn period of ancient China. His ancestral name was Ji ( 姬), given name Yun (允) or Gui (軌), and Duke Huan was his posthumous t ...
's son through Qingfu (慶父) was the ancestor of Mencius. He was descended from Duke Yang of the
State of Lu Lu (, c. 1042–249 BC) was a vassal state during the Zhou dynasty of ancient China located around modern Shandong province. Founded in the 11th century BC, its rulers were from a cadet branch of the House of Ji (姬) that ruled the Zhou dy ...
魯煬公 Duke Yang was the son of
Bo Qin Bo Qin (Chinese: , p ''Bóqín''), also known as Qin Fu (禽父), was the founder of the State of Lu during the early Zhou dynasty. Born into the royal Ji family (), he was the eldest son of the Duke of Zhou. Instead of inheriting his ...
, who was the son of the
Duke of Zhou Dan, Duke Wen of Zhou (), commonly known as the Duke of Zhou (), was a member of the royal family of the early Zhou dynasty who played a major role in consolidating the kingdom established by his elder brother King Wu. He was renowned for acting ...
of the Zhou dynasty royal family. The genealogy is found in the Mencius family tree (孟子世家大宗世系). During the Ming dynasty, one of Mencius' descendants was given a hereditary title at the Hanlin Academy by the Emperor. The title they held was Wujing Boshi (五经博士; 五經博士; Wǔjīng Bóshì). In 1452 Wujing Boshi was bestowed upon the offspring of Mengzi-Meng Xiwen 孟希文 56th generation and Yan Hui-Yan Xihui 顔希惠 59th generation, the same was bestowed on the offspring of
Zhou Dunyi Zhou Dunyi (; 1017–1073) was a Chinese cosmologist, philosopher, and writer during the Song dynasty. He conceptualized the Neo-Confucian cosmology of the day, explaining the relationship between human conduct and universal forces. In this wa ...
-Zhou Mian 週冕 12th generation, the two Cheng brothers (
Cheng Hao Chéng Hào (, 1032–1085), Courtesy name Bóchún (), was a Chinese philosopher and politician from Luoyang, China. In his youth, he and his younger brother Cheng Yi were students of Zhou Dunyi, one of the architects of Neo-Confucian cosm ...
and Cheng Yi-Chen Keren 程克仁 17th generation), Zhu Xi-Zhu Ting 朱梴 (Zhu Chan?) 9th generation, in 1456–1457, in 1539 the same was awarded to
Zeng Can Zeng Shen (505–435 BC), better known as Zengzi (Master Zeng), courtesy name Ziyu (), was a Chinese philosopher and disciple of Confucius. He later taught Zisi (Kong Ji), the grandson of Confucius, who was in turn the teacher of Mencius, thus b ...
's offspring-Zeng Zhicui 曾質粹 60th generation, in 1622 the offspring of Zhang Zai received the title and in 1630 the offspring of Shao Yong.
Zhang Zai Zhang Zai () (1020–1077) was a Chinese philosopher and politician. He is most known for laying out four ontological goals for intellectuals: to build up the manifestations of Heaven and Earth's spirit, to build up good life for the populace, to ...
's offspring received the appointment as wujing boshi along with Zhu Xi's,
Cheng Hao Chéng Hào (, 1032–1085), Courtesy name Bóchún (), was a Chinese philosopher and politician from Luoyang, China. In his youth, he and his younger brother Cheng Yi were students of Zhou Dunyi, one of the architects of Neo-Confucian cosm ...
's, Cheng Yi's, and
Zhou Dunyi Zhou Dunyi (; 1017–1073) was a Chinese cosmologist, philosopher, and writer during the Song dynasty. He conceptualized the Neo-Confucian cosmology of the day, explaining the relationship between human conduct and universal forces. In this wa ...
's offspring. Biographies of those who were awarded the title of Wujing Boshi in the Ming dynasty are found in Volume 284, Biographies 172 of the
History of Ming The ''History of Ming'' or the ''Ming History'' (''Míng Shǐ'') is one of the official Chinese historical works known as the ''Twenty-Four Histories''. It consists of 332 volumes and covers the history of the Ming dynasty from 1368 to 1644. It ...
( 明史). The Imperial Clansmen consisted of those who trace their descent direct from the founder of the Qing dynasty, and were distinguished by the privilege of wearing a yellow girdle; collateral relatives of the imperial house wore a red girdle. Twelve degrees of nobility (in a descending scale as one generation succeeds another) were conferred on the descendants of every emperor; in the thirteenth generation the descendants of emperors were merged in the general population, save that they retain the yellow girdle. The heads of eight houses, the Iron-capped (or helmeted) princes, maintained their titles in perpetuity by rule of primogeniture in virtue of having helped the
Manchu conquest The transition from Ming to Qing, alternatively known as Ming–Qing transition or the Manchu conquest of China, from 1618 to 1683, saw the transition between two major dynasties in Chinese history. It was a decades-long conflict between the em ...
of China. The title Wujing boshi 五經博士 was created in the Han dynasty. Holders of the title were considered part of Hanlin Academy. Confucian sages (
Disciples of Confucius According to Sima Qian, Confucius said: "The disciples who received my instructions, and could themselves comprehend them, were seventy-seven individuals. They were all scholars of extraordinary ability." It was traditionally believed that Confuciu ...
and Neo Confucian scholars) offspring were granted the office of "Wujing Boshi" (五经博士; 五經博士; Wǔjīng Bóshì). There were 22 of them. "''Present Day Political Organization of China''" by V.V. Hagelstrom and H.S. Brunnert contains a list of people who were awarded the title: ''The title of 五經博士 Wu3 Ching1 Po2 Shih4, or simply 博士 Po2 Shih4 (literary designation, 大瀚博 Ta4 Han4 Po2), is also transmitted to the eldest, in a direct line, of the descendants of the following famous men of antiquity : 1. 周公 Chou1 Kung1, 2. 顏淵 Yen2 Yüan1, 3. 曾子輿 Tsêng1 Tzu3-yü2, 4. 閔子騫 Min3 Tzu3-ch'ien1, 5. 仲季路 Chung4 Chi4-lu4, 6. 有子有 Yu3 Tzu3-yu3, 7. 端木子貢 Tuan1 Mu4 Tzu3 Kung4, 8. 卜子夏 Pu3 Tzu3-hsia4, 9. 言子游 Yen2 Tzu3-yu2, 10. 冉伯牛 Jan3 Po2-niu2, 11. 冉仲弓 Jan3 Chung4-kung1, 12. 顓孫子張 Chuan1 Sun1 Tzu3 Chang1, 13. 孟子 Mêng4 Tzu3, 14. 伏生 Fu2 Shêng1, 15. 韓愈 Han4 Yü4, 16. 周敦頤 Chou1 Tun1-i2, 17. 邵雍 Shao4 Yung1, 18. 程顥 Ch'êng2 Hao4, 19. 程頤 Ch'êng2 I2, 20. 張載 Chang 1 Tsai3, 21. 朱熹 Chu1 Hsi3, and 22. 關羽 Kuan1 Yü3.'' It was also granted to the cadet branch of the Confucius family at
Quzhou Quzhou is a prefecture-level city in western Zhejiang province, People's Republic of China. Sitting on the upper course of the Qiantang River, it borders Hangzhou to the north, Jinhua to the east, Lishui to the southeast, and the provinces of F ...
. The descendants of the
Four Sages The Four Sages, Assessors, Legge, James. The Confucian Analects, the Great Learning, & the Doctrine of the Mean'. 1893. or Correlates () are four eminent Chinese philosophers in the Confucian tradition. They are traditionally accorded a kind of sai ...
四氏, Confucius, Mencius, Zengzi, and Yan Hui still use generation poems for their names given to them by the Ming and Qing Emperors. The Qing appointed the Ming imperial descendants to the title of
Marquis of Extended Grace The Marquis of Extended Grace was a title held by a descendant of the imperial family of the Ming dynasty (1368–1644) during the subsequent Qing dynasty (1644–1912). Holders of this title were also called the Marquis of Zhu from the surname ...
. Zhang Daoling's offspring, the
Celestial Masters The Way of the Celestial Masters is a Chinese Daoist movement that was founded by Zhang Daoling in 142 AD. Its followers rebelled against the Han Dynasty, and won their independence in 194. At its height, the movement controlled a theocratic state ...
held the title of 正一嗣教眞人. The main line of the Duke of Zhou's descendants came from his firstborn son, the
State of Lu Lu (, c. 1042–249 BC) was a vassal state during the Zhou dynasty of ancient China located around modern Shandong province. Founded in the 11th century BC, its rulers were from a cadet branch of the House of Ji (姬) that ruled the Zhou dy ...
ruler
Bo Qin Bo Qin (Chinese: , p ''Bóqín''), also known as Qin Fu (禽父), was the founder of the State of Lu during the early Zhou dynasty. Born into the royal Ji family (), he was the eldest son of the Duke of Zhou. Instead of inheriting his ...
's third son Yu (魚) whose descendants adopted the surname Dongye (東野). 東野家族大宗世系 Family Tree of the descendants of the Duke of Zhou in Chinese One of the Duke of Zhou's 72 generation descendants family tree was examined and commented on by Song Lian. The Zhikou (Chikow) Chiangs such as
Chiang Kai-shek Chiang Kai-shek (31 October 1887 – 5 April 1975), also known as Chiang Chung-cheng and Jiang Jieshi, was a Chinese Nationalist politician, revolutionary, and military leader who served as the leader of the Republic of China (ROC) from 1928 ...
were descended from Chiang Shih-chieh who during the 1600s (17th century) moved there from Fenghua district, whose ancestors in turn came to southeastern China's Zhejiang (Chekiang) province after moving out of Northern China in the 13th century AD. The 12th century BC
Duke of Zhou Dan, Duke Wen of Zhou (), commonly known as the Duke of Zhou (), was a member of the royal family of the early Zhou dynasty who played a major role in consolidating the kingdom established by his elder brother King Wu. He was renowned for acting ...
's (Duke of Chou) third son ( 管叔鮮) was the ancestor of the Chiangs. The oldest held continuous noble title in Chinese history was that held by the descendants of Confucius, as
Duke Yansheng The Duke Yansheng, literally "Honorable Overflowing with Wisdom", sometimes translated as Holy Duke of Yen, was a Chinese title of nobility. It was originally created as a marquis title in the Western Han dynasty for a direct descendant o ...
, which was renamed as the Sacrificial Official to Confucius in 1935 by the Republic of China. The title is held by Kung Tsui-chang. Han defectors played a massive role in the Qing conquest of China. Han Chinese Generals who defected to the Manchu were often given women from the Imperial Aisin Gioro family in marriage while the ordinary soldiers who defected were often given non-royal Manchu women as wives. The Manchu leader
Nurhaci Nurhaci (14 May 1559 – 30 September 1626), also known by his temple name as the Emperor Taizu of Qing (), was a Jurchen chieftain who rose to prominence in the late 16th century in Manchuria. A member of the House of Aisin-Gioro, he reigned ...
married one of his granddaughters to the Ming General Li Yongfang 李永芳 after he surrendered Fushun in Liaoning to the Manchu in 1618. The offspring of Li received the "Third Class Viscount" () title. Li Yongfang was the great great great grandfather of Li Shiyao 李侍堯. Upon the surrender of Zheng Keshuang he received the title of Duke Haicheng from the Qing and his follower
Feng Xifan Feng Xifan ( 17th century), pseudonym Xifan (), was an official and general of the Kingdom of Tungning on the island of Taiwan in the late 17th century. He was from Longxi County, which is around present-day Qiling Village, Longwen District, Z ...
received the title of Count Zhongcheng. Shi Lang received the title of Marquis Jinghai from the Qing. Zeng Guofan,
Zuo Zongtang Zuo Zongtang, Marquis Kejing ( also spelled Tso Tsung-t'ang; ; November 10, 1812 – September 5, 1885), sometimes referred to as General Tso, was a Chinese statesman and military leader of the late Qing dynasty. Born in Xiangyin County ...
and Li Hongzhang received the title of Marquis from the Qing. Zeng Guofan was a descendant of Zengzi through a cadet branch. Most titles of nobility were officially abolished when China became a republic in 1912, with the Republic maintaining some titles like Duke Yansheng. They were briefly expanded under Yuan Shikai's empire and after
Zhang Xun Zhang Xun (; September 16, 1854 – September 11, 1923), courtesy name Shaoxuan (), art name Songshoulaoren (), nickname Bianshuai (, ), was a Chinese general and Qing loyalist who attempted to restore the abdicated emperor Puyi in the Manchu Re ...
's coup. The last emperor was allowed to keep his title but was treated as a foreign monarch until the 1924 coup. Manchukuo also had titles of nobility. The bestowal of titles was abolished upon the establishment of the People's Republic of China in 1949. The families of the descendants of the Four Sages 四氏 still hold hereditary offices in the Republic of China (Taiwan) such as the
Sacrificial Official to Confucius The Duke Yansheng, literally "Honorable Overflowing with Wisdom", sometimes translated as Holy Duke of Yen, was a Chinese title of nobility. It was originally created as a marquis title in the Western Han dynasty for a direct descendant o ...
, "Sacrificial Official to Mencius", "Sacrificial Official to Zengzi", and "Sacrificial Official to Yan Hui".


List of people granted peerage by Yuan Shikai as self-proclaimed emperor (1915–1916)

After the fall of the Qing dynasty and its "Last Emperor"
Puyi Aisin-Gioro Puyi (; 7 February 1906 – 17 October 1967), courtesy name Yaozhi (曜之), was the last emperor of China as the eleventh and final Qing dynasty monarch. He became emperor at the age of two in 1908, but was forced to abdicate on 1 ...
in the
Xinhai Revolution The 1911 Revolution, also known as the Xinhai Revolution or Hsinhai Revolution, ended China's last Dynasties in Chinese history, imperial dynasty, the Manchu people, Manchu-led Qing dynasty, and led to the establishment of the Republic of Chi ...
of 1911, Chinese President Yuan Shikai attempted to resurrect the imperial system, proclaiming himself emperor in his brief Empire of China (1915–1916) which ended with his death 83 days after its inauguration. During this period, Yuan Shikai as sovereign declared the ennoblement of several people, in this case not so much his family and clan as allies and those he sought as supporters for the new Empire. Some declined the honors.


Prince of the First Rank Wuyi (武義親王 ''Wǔyì qīn wáng'')

* Li Yuanhong *
Duke Yansheng The Duke Yansheng, literally "Honorable Overflowing with Wisdom", sometimes translated as Holy Duke of Yen, was a Chinese title of nobility. It was originally created as a marquis title in the Western Han dynasty for a direct descendant o ...
Kong Lingyi The Duke Yansheng, literally "Honorable Overflowing with Wisdom", sometimes translated as Holy Duke of Yen, was a Chinese title of nobility. It was originally created as a marquis title in the Western Han dynasty for a direct descendant o ...


Dukes of the First Rank (一等公 ''Yī děng gōng'')

*
Long Jiguang Long Jiguang (龍濟光) (1867–1925) was an ethnic Hani Chinese general of the late Qing and early Republican period of China. Biography Long's older brother Jinguang (龍覲光) was also a general. Long began his military career suppressin ...
(龍濟光) *
Zhang Xun Zhang Xun (; September 16, 1854 – September 11, 1923), courtesy name Shaoxuan (), art name Songshoulaoren (), nickname Bianshuai (, ), was a Chinese general and Qing loyalist who attempted to restore the abdicated emperor Puyi in the Manchu Re ...
* Feng Guozhang *
Jiang Guiti Jiang Guiti () (1844 – January 16, 1922) was a Chinese general who served under Song Qing in the suppression of the Taiping and Nian rebels and later against the Empire of Japan The also known as the Japanese Empire or Imper ...
(姜桂題) *
Duan Zhigui Duan Zhigui (; 1869 – March 1925) was a Chinese general. Born in Hefei, Anhui, he attained the post of Heilongjiang governor in the late Qing dynasty and between 1912-13 was governor of Chahar and the military governor of Hubei between 1914 ...
*
Ni Sichong Ni Sichong, Duke of the First Rank (; ; 1868–1924) was a Chinese general. He was one of the handful of Beiyang generals who along with Yang Du and others supported Yuan Shikai's Empire of China during the National Protection War. He was la ...
*
Liu Guanxiong Liu Guanxiong (; 1861, Fuzhou, Fujian – 1927, Tianjin) was a Chinese Admiral from the late Qing dynasty and the early Republic of China who was Navy Minister of China, from 1912 to 1916 and from 1917 to 1919. When he was young he entered th ...


Marquesses of the First Rank (一等侯 ''Yī děng hóu'')

*
Tang Xiangming Tang Xiangming (; 1885–1975), courtesy name Zhuxin (铸新), was a Chinese naval officer. Tang studied Naval warfare in France and the United Kingdom. In 1905, he joined the Chinese United League (Tongmenghui). In 1911, during the Wuchang Upri ...
(湯薌銘) * Li Chun (李純) *
Zhu Rui Zhu Rui (朱瑞, 1905–1948) was born in Suqian, Jiangsu province. He was an artillery commander of the Chinese People's Liberation Army (PLA) from October 1946 to October 1948. Early life When he studied at Xuzhou Peixin Middle School, he was ...
(朱瑞) *
Lu Rongting Lu Rongting (; September 9, 1859 – November 6, 1928), also spelled as Lu Yung-ting and Lu Jung-t'ing, was a late Qing/early Republican military and political leader from Wuming, Guangxi. Lu belonged to the Zhuang ethnic group.吴振汉. � ...
*
Zhao Ti Zhao Ti () (1871–1933) was a Chinese general of the late Qing and early Republican period of China. In 1920, he was military governor of Henan. References 1871 births 1933 deaths Qing dynasty generals Republic of China warlords from Hen ...
(趙倜) *
Chen Yi Chen Yi may refer to: * Xuanzang (602–664), born as Chen Yi, Chinese Buddhist monk in Tang Dynasty * Chen Yi (Kuomintang) (1883–1950), Chief Executive of Taiwan Province * Chen Yi (marshal) Chen Yi (; August 26, 1901 – January 6, 1972 ...
*
Tang Jiyao Tang Jiyao () (August 14, 1883 – May 23, 1927) was a Chinese general and warlord of Yunnan during the Warlord Era of early Republican China. He was military governor of Yunnan from 1913-27. Life Tang was born in Huize county in 1883 in ...
* Yan Xishan *
Wang Zhanyuan Wang Zhanyuan () (February 20, 1861 – September 14, 1934) was a Chinese general of the Warlord Era of China's Republican period, whose power base was in Hubei province. Biography In October 1911, during the Xinhai Revolution, he was a ...
(王占元) *
Lui Kang ''Lui'' (; ) is a French adult-entertainment magazine created in November 1963 by Daniel Filipacchi, a fashion photographer turned publisher, Jacques Lanzmann, a jack of all trades turned novelist, and Frank Ténot, a press agent, pataphys ...


Counts of the First Rank (一等伯 ''Yī děng bó'')

*
Zhang Xiluan Zhang Xiluan ({{zh, 張錫鑾) (1843–1922) was a Chinese general of the late Qing Dynasty. 1843 births 1922 deaths Generals from Zhejiang Politicians from Hangzhou Qing dynasty generals Republic of China politicians from Zhejiang Empire o ...
(張錫鑾) *
Zhu Jiabao Zhu Jiabao (; 1860 – September 5, 1923) was a Chinese monarchist politician who supported the creation of the Empire of China and the 1917 Manchu Restoration of Zhang Xun. He was born in Ningzhou Town, Huaning County, Yunnan. In 1907, he ...
(朱家寶) *
Zhang Mingqi Zhang Mingqi () (July 29, 1875 – September 15, 1945) was a Qing Dynasty politician who served as the last Viceroy of Liangguang from April 14 to November 8, 1911. He was born in Shandong province. He supported Yuan Shikai's creation of the E ...
(張鳴岐) *
Tian Wenlie Tian Wenlie ({{zh, 田文烈; November 9, 1858 – November 12, 1924) was a Chinese politician of the late Qing Dynasty and early Republican period, military governor of Henan province and supporter of Yuan Shikai's restoration of the monarchy. He ...
(田文烈) *
Jin Yunpeng Jin Yunpeng (); ; 1877 – 30 January 1951) was a Chinese general and politician of the Warlord Era of the Republic of China. He served as both Minister of War and then Premier of China several times. His ascent to the Premiership was support ...
*
Yang Zengxin Yang Zengxin (; March 6, 1864 – July 7, 1928) was the ruler of Xinjiang after the Xinhai Revolution in 1911 until his assassination in 1928. Life Yang Zengxin was born in Mengzi, Yunnan Province, in 1864. Though a Han Chinese, he had ...
(楊增新) * Lu Jianzhang (陸建章) *
Meng Enyuan Meng Enyuan ({{zh, 孟恩遠) (1856–1933) was a Chinese general of the late Qing and early Republican period in China. A native of Tianjin, in what was then the province of Zhili, Meng was commander of the Chinese army garrison in Jilin province ...
(孟恩遠) *
Qu Yinguang Qu Yingguang (; March 14, 1883 – September 19, 1973), courtesy name Wenliu (), was a Chinese politician active during the Republican period. Qu was born in Taizhou, Zhejiang province. A member of the Guangfuhui, Qu took the bringing the X ...
(屈映光) *
Qi Yaolin Qi Yaolin () (1863 – ?)徐友春主編『民国人物大辞典 増訂版』2317頁作生于1863年。Who's Who in China 3rd ed., p.160作生于1864年。 was a Chinese politician of the late Qing Dynasty and early period of the Republic of Chi ...
(齊耀琳) *
Cao Kun General Cao Kun (; courtesy name: Zhongshan () (December 12, 1862 – May 15, 1938) was a Chinese warlord and politician, who served the President of the Republic of China from 1923 to 1924, as well as the military leader of the Zhili clique in ...
*
Yang Shande Yang Shande () (1873 – August 13, 1919) was a Chinese politician of the late Qing Dynasty and early Republican period. He supported Yuan Shikai's restoration of the monarchy and was made a count under the Empire of China (1915–1916) ...
(楊善德)


Viscounts of the First Rank (一等子 ''Yī děng zǐ'')

*
Zhu Qinglan Zhu Qinglan (), formerly transliterated as Chu Ching-lan (1874 – 13 January 1941) courtesy name Ziqiao () was a Chinese military officer of the Republic of China Military career Under the Republic of China, Zhu Qinglan was military governo ...
(朱慶瀾) *
Zhang Guangjian Zhang Guangjian () (1864/1867 – 1938) was a Chinese politician of the late Qing Dynasty and early Republican period. A native of Hefei, Anhui, he was the last Qing governor of Shandong, serving after the outbreak of the Xinhai Revolution in t ...
(張廣建) *
Li Houji Li, li, or LI may refer to: Businesses and organizations * Landscape Institute, a British professional body for landscape architects * Leadership Institute, a non-profit organization located in Arlington, Virginia, US, that teaches "political te ...
(李厚基) *
Liu Xianshi Liu Xianshi ({{zh, 劉顯世) (May 8, 1870 – October 14, 1927) was a Chinese general of the Late Qing dynasty and early Republican period. Initially supporting Yuan Shikai and his declaration of the Empire of China, Liu joined Cai E and Tang J ...
(劉顯世)


Barons of the First Rank (一等男 ''Yī děng nán'')

* Ma Anliang (馬安良) *
Xu Shiying Xu Shiying (; September 10, 1873 – October 13, 1964, also romanized as Hsu Shih-ing) was a Chinese Kuomintang politician who served as Premier of the Republic of China from December 26, 1925, to March 4, 1926. He is known as a staunch believer ...
(許世英) *
Qi Yang In traditional Chinese culture and the East Asian cultural sphere, ''qi'', also ''ki'' or ''chi'' in Wade–Giles romanization ( ), is believed to be a vital force forming part of any living entity. Literally meaning "vapor", "air", or "br ...
(戚揚) *
Ren Kecheng Ren or REN may refer to: Abbreviations * Orenburg Tsentralny Airport, IATA code REN, civil airport in Russia * Redes Energéticas Nacionais (REN), Portuguese company * Renanthera, abbreviated as Ren, orchid genus * Ringer equivalence number (R ...
(任可澄) *
Wang Yitang Wang Yitang (; October 17, 1877 – September 10, 1948) was a politician and military leader in the Qing Dynasty and Republic of China. He belonged to the Anhui clique and formed the Anfu Club (). Later he became an important politician in th ...
(王揖唐) *
He Zonglian He or HE may refer to: Language * He (pronoun), an English pronoun * He (kana), the romanization of the Japanese kana へ * He (letter), the fifth letter of many Semitic alphabets * He (Cyrillic), a letter of the Cyrillic script called ''He'' in ...
(何宗蓮) *
Zhang Huaizhi Zhang Huaizhi () (1862 – 1934) was a brigade-general during the Boxer Rebellion; a warlord in the early Chinese Republic; Viceroy of Shandong. He was eliminated in the Second Zhili–Fengtian War The Second Zhili–Fengtian War (Second ...
(張懷芝) *
Long Jinuang Long may refer to: Measurement * Long, characteristic of something of great duration * Long, characteristic of something of great length * Longitude (abbreviation: long.), a geographic coordinate * Longa (music), note value in early music mensu ...
(龍覲光) *
Chen Bingkun Chen Bingkun, (),(1868 – September 1927) was born in 1868 in Liujiang, Guangxi, China. A general in the late Qing Period, he was commander of the 1st Division of the Guangxi Provincial Army. As a supporter of the Old Guangxi Clique he beca ...
*
Lu Yongxiang Lu Yongxiang may refer to: *Lu Yongxiang (warlord) Lu Yongxiang, (; October 22, 1867 – May 15, 1933), Anhui clique warlord, military governor of Zhejiang, Zhili, and Jiangsu. Lu Yongxiang was born October 22, 1867, in Jiyang, Shandong, C ...
(盧永祥) *
Lü Diaoyuan Lu, Lü, or LU may refer to: Arts and entertainment * Lu (music), Tibetan folk music * Lu (duo), a Mexican band ** ''Lu'' (album) * Character from Mike, Lu & Og * Lupe Fiasco or Lu (born 1982), American musician * Lebor na hUidre, a manuscript ...
(呂調元) * Jin Yong (金永) *
Cai Rukai Cai Rukai (; 1867 - 1923) was a Chinese politician and educator of the late Qing dynasty and early Republican period. Biography Cai was born in Nanchang, Jiangxi in 1867. During the reign of Guangxu Emperor in the Qing dynasty, he successfully ...
(蔡儒楷) *
Duan Shuyun Duan may refer to: * Duan (surname), a Chinese surname ** Duan dynasty, the ruling dynasty of the Dali Kingdom * Duan tribe, pre-state tribe during the era of Sixteen Kingdoms in China * Duan language, spoken on the Laotian–Vietnamese border * D ...
(段書雲) *
Long Jianzhang Long may refer to: Measurement * Long, characteristic of something of great duration * Long, characteristic of something of great length * Longitude (abbreviation: long.), a geographic coordinate * Longa (music), note value in early music mensu ...
(龍建章) *
Shen Jinjian Shen Jinjian () (1875–1924) was a politician of the Republic of China, the 4th Republican mayor of Beijing. He was born in Huzhou, Zhejiang. Bibliography * * {{Authority control 1875 births 1924 deaths Republic of China politicians ...
(沈金鑑) * Pan Juying (潘矩楹)


Baron of the Third Rank (三等男 ''Sān děng nán'')

* Feng Yuxiang


Modern Chinese styles for foreign monarchs

In modern Chinese, a king is referred to as a ''Wang'', while an emperor would be referred to as ''Huangdi''. Traditional Chinese political theory held that "All lands under Heaven belong to the emperor, all people under Heaven belong, are subjects of the emperor." (普天之下,莫非王土; 率土之濱, 莫非王臣). Queen Victoria was styled ''Nü-Wang'' (Queen) of the
United Kingdom of Britain and Ireland United may refer to: Places * United, Pennsylvania, an unincorporated community * United, West Virginia, an unincorporated community Arts and entertainment Films * ''United'' (2003 film), a Norwegian film * ''United'' (2011 film), a BBC Two f ...
. Thus, a foreign monarch would also be referred to as ''Wang'', implying that one was inferior in rank and thus subject to the Chinese emperor.


Other historical Chinese titles

Other titles might be tailored down to a single individual being officially honored for a particular achievement, with or without executive portfolio following the granting of the title, and might truly be titles outside the executive government structure, even when words used in their phrasing would otherwise imply executive office, e.g., ''Protector General'' (都護; Duhu) – for example,
Ban Chao Ban Chao (; 32–102 CE), courtesy name Zhongsheng, was a Chinese diplomat, explorer, and military general of the Eastern Han Dynasty. He was born in Fufeng, now Xianyang, Shaanxi. Three of his family members—father Ban Biao, elder brother B ...
. On the other hand, victorious generals were often granted official praise-names or names implying particular old and new duties or some combination of these, which would be quasi-executive or fully executive titles honored as much like peerage as like actual military rank, as in the case of Liu Bei promoting Guan Yu to a rank phrased as General Who Exterminates Bandits (蕩寇將軍) during the active course of Guan Yu's military career. In Dutch East Indies (modern-day Indonesia), the Dutch authorities appointed Chinese officers to the colonial administration to oversee the governance of the colony's Chinese subjects. These officials bore the ranks of ''Majoor'', ''Kapitein'' or ''Luitenant der Chinezen'', and had extensive political and legal jurisdiction over the local Chinese community. Their descendants bore the hereditary title of '' Sia'', and constituted the ''
Cabang Atas The Cabang Atas (''Van Ophuijsen Spelling System'': Tjabang Atas) — literally 'highest branch' in Indonesian — was the traditional Chinese establishment or gentry of colonial Indonesia. They were the families and descendants of the Chinese ...
'' or the Chinese gentry of colonial Indonesia.


See also

*
Imperial, royal and noble ranks Traditional rank amongst European royalty, peers, and nobility is rooted in Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages. Although they vary over time and among geographic regions (for example, one region's prince might be equal to another's grand duke ...
* Royal and noble ranks of the Qing dynasty *
Social structure of China The social structure of China has an extensive history which begins from the feudal society of Imperial China to the contemporary era. There was a Chinese nobility, beginning with the Zhou dynasty. However, after the Song dynasty, the powerful ...


References


Citations


Sources

* ''This article incorporates text from the
1911 Encyclopædia Britannica A notable ongoing event was the race for the South Pole. Events January * January 1 – A decade after federation, the Northern Territory and the Australian Capital Territory are added to the Commonwealth of Australia. * Ja ...
.''


Further reading

* Ebrey, Patricia Buckley. ''The Aristocratic Families in Early Imperial China: A Case Study of the Po-Ling Ts'ui Family'' (Cambridge UP, 1978). * Johnson, David. ''The Medieval Chinese Oligarchy'' (Westview Press, 1977). * * Tackett, Nicolas. "Violence and the 1 Percent: The Fall of the Medieval Chinese Aristocracy in Comparison to the Fall of the French Nobility." ''American Historical Review'' 124.3 (2019): 933-937. * Tackett, Nicolas. ''The Origins of the Chinese Nation: Song China and the Forging of an East Asian World Order'' (Cambridge UP, 2017) * Tackett, Nicolas. ''The Destruction of the Medieval Chinese Aristocracy'' (Harvard University Asia Center, 2016
online review
** Tackett, Nicolas Olivier, "The Transformation Of Medieval Chinese Elites (850–1000 C.E.)" (PhD dissertation, Columbia University, 2006
online
{{DEFAULTSORT:Chinese Nobility Chinese royal titles Social history of China