Ink wash painting ( zh, t=水墨畫, s=水墨画, p=shuǐmòhuà; ja, 水墨画, translit=suiboku-ga or ja, 墨絵, translit=sumi-e; ko, 수묵화, translit=sumukhwa) is a type of Chinese ink brush painting which uses
black ink, such as that used in
Asian calligraphy, in different concentrations. It emerged during the
Tang dynasty
The Tang dynasty (, ; zh, t= ), or Tang Empire, was an Dynasties in Chinese history, imperial dynasty of China that ruled from 618 to 907 AD, with an Zhou dynasty (690–705), interregnum between 690 and 705. It was preceded by the Sui dyn ...
of China (618–907); it overturned earlier, more
realistic techniques. It is typically
monochrome
A monochrome or monochromatic image, object or palette is composed of one color (or values of one color). Images using only shades of grey are called grayscale (typically digital) or black-and-white (typically analog). In physics, monochr ...
, using only shades of black, with a great emphasis on
virtuoso
A virtuoso (from Italian ''virtuoso'' or , "virtuous", Late Latin ''virtuosus'', Latin ''virtus'', "virtue", "excellence" or "skill") is an individual who possesses outstanding talent and technical ability in a particular art or field such a ...
brushwork and conveying the perceived "spirit" or "essence" of a subject over direct
imitation
Imitation (from Latin ''imitatio'', "a copying, imitation") is a behavior whereby an individual observes and replicates another's behavior. Imitation is also a form of that leads to the "development of traditions, and ultimately our culture. I ...
.
Ink wash painting flourished from the
Song dynasty
The Song dynasty (; ; 960–1279) was an imperial dynasty of China that began in 960 and lasted until 1279. The dynasty was founded by Emperor Taizu of Song following his usurpation of the throne of the Later Zhou. The Song conquered the res ...
in China (960–1279) onwards, as well as in Japan after it was introduced by
Zen Buddhist monks in the
14th century
As a means of recording the passage of time, the 14th century was a century lasting from 1 January 1301 ( MCCCI), to 31 December 1400 ( MCD). It is estimated that the century witnessed the death of more than 45 million lives from political and na ...
.
Some Western scholars divide Chinese painting (including ink wash painting) into three periods: times of representation, times of expression, and historical Oriental art.
Chinese scholars have their own views which may be different; they believe that contemporary Chinese ink wash paintings are the pluralistic continuation of multiple historical traditions.
In China and Japan as well as much less so in Korea, ink wash painting formed a distinct stylistic tradition with a different set of artists working in it than from those doing other types of painting. In China especially it was a gentlemanly occupation associated with poetry and
calligraphy
Calligraphy (from el, link=y, καλλιγραφία) is a visual art related to writing. It is the design and execution of lettering with a pen, ink brush, or other writing instrument. Contemporary calligraphic practice can be defined ...
. It was often produced by the
scholar-official
The scholar-officials, also known as literati, scholar-gentlemen or scholar-bureaucrats (), were government officials and prestigious scholars in Chinese society, forming a distinct social class.
Scholar-officials were politicians and governmen ...
or literati class, ideally illustrating their own poetry and producing the paintings as gifts for friends or patrons, rather than painting for payment.
In practice a talented painter often had a very useful advantage in climbing the bureaucratic ladder. In Korea, painters were less segregated, and more willing to paint in two techniques, such as mixing areas of colour with monochrome ink, for example in painting the faces of figures.
The vertical
hanging scroll
A hanging scroll is one of the many traditional ways to display and exhibit East Asian painting and calligraphy. The hanging scroll was displayed in a room for appreciation; it is to be distinguished from the handscroll, which was narrower and ...
was the classic format; the long horizontal
handscroll format tended to be associated with professional coloured painting, but was also used for literati painting. In both formats paintings were generally kept rolled up, and brought out for the owner to admire, often with a small group of friends. Chinese collectors liked to stamp paintings with their
seals
Seals may refer to:
* Pinniped, a diverse group of semi-aquatic marine mammals, many of which are commonly called seals, particularly:
** Earless seal, or "true seal"
** Fur seal
* Seal (emblem), a device to impress an emblem, used as a means of a ...
and usually in red inkpad; sometimes they would add poems or notes of appreciation. Some old and famous paintings have become very disfigured by this; the
Qianlong Emperor was a particular offender.
In
landscape painting
Landscape painting, also known as landscape art, is the depiction of natural scenery such as mountains, valleys, trees, rivers, and forests, especially where the main subject is a wide view—with its elements arranged into a coherent compo ...
the scenes depicted are typically imaginary or very loose adaptations of actual views. The style of mountain landscapes are by far the most common, often evoking particular areas traditionally famous for their beauty, from which the artist may have been very distant. Including water, for example oceans and lakes is common.
Philosophy
East Asian writing on aesthetics is generally consistent in saying that the goal of ink and wash painting is not simply to reproduce the appearance of the subject, but to capture its spirit. To paint a horse the ink wash painting artist must understand its temperament better than its muscles and bones. To paint a flower there is no need to perfectly match its petals and colors, but it is essential to convey its liveliness and fragrance. It has been compared to the later Western movement of
Impressionism
Impressionism was a 19th-century art movement characterized by relatively small, thin, yet visible brush strokes, open composition, emphasis on accurate depiction of light in its changing qualities (often accentuating the effects of the passa ...
.
It is also particularly associated with the
Chán or Zen sect of Buddhism, which emphasizes "simplicity, spontaneity and self-expression", and
Daoism, which emphasizes "spontaneity and harmony with nature,"
[ especially when compared with the less spiritually-oriented ]Confucianism
Confucianism, also known as Ruism or Ru classicism, is a system of thought and behavior originating in ancient China. Variously described as tradition, a philosophy, a Religious Confucianism, religion, a humanistic or rationalistic religion, ...
.
East Asian ink wash painting has long inspired modern artists in the West. In his classic book ''Composition'', American artist and educator Arthur Wesley Dow
Arthur Wesley Dow (1857 – December 13, 1922) was an American painter, printmaker, photographer and an arts educator.
Early life
Arthur Wesley Dow was born in Ipswich, Massachusetts, in 1857. Dow received his first art training in 1880 from An ...
(1857–1922) wrote this about ink wash painting: "The painter... put upon the paper the fewest possible lines and tones; just enough to cause form, texture and effect to be felt. Every brush-touch must be full-charged with meaning, and useless detail eliminated. Put together all the good points in such a method, and you have the qualities of the highest art". Dow's fascination with ink wash painting not only shaped his own approach to art but also helped free many American modernists of the era, including his student Georgia O'Keeffe, from what he called a "story-telling" approach. Dow strived for harmonic compositions through three elements: line, shading, and color. He advocated practicing with East Asian brushes and ink to develop aesthetic acuity with line and shading.
Technique, materials and tools
Ink wash painting uses tonality and shading achieved by varying the ink density, both by differential grinding of the ink stick in water and by varying the ink load and pressure within a single brushstroke. Ink wash painting artists spend years practicing basic brush strokes to refine their brush movement and ink flow. These skills are closely related to those needed for basic writing in East Asian characters, and then for calligraphy, which essentially use the same ink and brushes. In the hand of a master, a single stroke can produce considerable variations in tonality, from deep black to silvery gray. Thus, in its original context, shading means more than just dark-light arrangement: It is the basis for the nuance in tonality found in East Asian ink wash painting and brush-and-ink calligraphy.
Once a stroke is painted it cannot be changed or erased. As a result ink and wash painting is a technically demanding art form requiring great skill, concentration, and years of training.
The Four Treasures is summarized in a four word couplet: "," (Pinyin: ) "''The four jewels of the study: Brush, Ink, Paper, Inkstone''" by Chinese scholar-official
The scholar-officials, also known as literati, scholar-gentlemen or scholar-bureaucrats (), were government officials and prestigious scholars in Chinese society, forming a distinct social class.
Scholar-officials were politicians and governmen ...
or literati class, which are also indispensable tools and materials for East Asian painting.[Chinesetoday.com.]
Chinesetoday.com
." ''趣談「文房四寶」.'' Retrieved on 2010-11-27.[Big5.xinhuanet.com.]
." ''走近文房四寶.'' Retrieved on 2010-11-27.
Brush
The earliest intact ink brush was found in 1954 in the tomb of a Chu citizen from the Warring States period
The Warring States period () was an era in History of China#Ancient China, ancient Chinese history characterized by warfare, as well as bureaucratic and military reforms and consolidation. It followed the Spring and Autumn period and concluded ...
(475-221 BCE) located in an archaeological dig site near Changsha
Changsha (; ; ; Changshanese pronunciation: (), Standard Mandarin pronunciation: ) is the capital and the largest city of Hunan Province of China. Changsha is the 17th most populous city in China with a population of over 10 million, and ...
. This primitive version of an ink brush found had a wooden stalk and a bamboo tube securing the bundle of hair to the stalk. Legend wrongly credits the invention of the ink brush to the later Qin general Meng Tian. Traces of a writing brush, however, were discovered on the Shang jades, and were suggested to be the grounds of the oracle bone script
Oracle bone script () is an ancient form of Chinese characters that were engraved on oracle bonesanimal bones or turtle plastrons used in pyromantic divination. Oracle bone script was used in the late 2nd millennium BC, and is the earliest k ...
inscriptions.[Cambridge History of Ancient China, 1999:108–112]
The writing brush entered a new stage of development in the Han dynasty
The Han dynasty (, ; ) was an Dynasties in Chinese history, imperial dynasty of China (202 BC – 9 AD, 25–220 AD), established by Emperor Gaozu of Han, Liu Bang (Emperor Gao) and ruled by the House of Liu. The dynasty was preceded by th ...
. First, the decorative craft of engraving and inlaying on the pen-holder appeared. Second, some writings on the production of writing brush have also survived. For example, the first monograph
A monograph is a specialist work of writing (in contrast to reference works) or exhibition on a single subject or an aspect of a subject, often by a single author or artist, and usually on a scholarly subject.
In library cataloging, ''monogra ...
on the selection, production and function of a writing brush was written by Cai Yong
Cai Yong (Chinese: ; 132–192), courtesy name Bojie, was Chinese astronomer, calligrapher, historian, mathematician, musician, politician, and writer of the Eastern Han dynasty. He was well-versed in calligraphy, music, mathematics and astrono ...
in the eastern Han dynasty. Third, the special form of "hairpin white pen" appeared. Officials in the Han dynasty often sharpened the end of the brush and stuck it in their hair or hat for their convenience. Worshipers also often put pen on their heads to show respect.
During the Yuan and Ming dynasties Huzhou
Huzhou (, ; Huzhounese: ''ghou² cieu¹'') is a prefecture-level city in northern Zhejiang province (Hangzhou–Jiaxing–Huzhou Plain, China). Lying south of the Lake Tai, it borders Jiaxing to the east, Hangzhou to the south, and the provin ...
emerged a group of pen making experts, such as Wu Yunhui, Feng Yingke, Lu Wenbao, Zhang Tianxi, etc. Huzhou has been the center of Chinese brush making since the Qing dynasty. At the same time, there was many famous brushes in other places, such as the Ruyang Liu brush in Henan province, the Li Dinghe brush in Shanghai, and the Wu Yunhui in Jiangxi province.
Ink wash painting brushes are similar to the brushes used for calligraphy and are traditionally made from bamboo
Bamboos are a diverse group of evergreen perennial flowering plants making up the subfamily Bambusoideae of the grass family Poaceae. Giant bamboos are the largest members of the grass family. The origin of the word "bamboo" is uncertain, ...
with goat
The goat or domestic goat (''Capra hircus'') is a domesticated species of goat-antelope typically kept as livestock. It was domesticated from the wild goat (''C. aegagrus'') of Southwest Asia and Eastern Europe. The goat is a member of the a ...
, cattle
Cattle (''Bos taurus'') are large, domesticated, cloven-hooved, herbivores. They are a prominent modern member of the subfamily Bovinae and the most widespread species of the genus '' Bos''. Adult females are referred to as cows and adult ...
, horse
The horse (''Equus ferus caballus'') is a domesticated, one-toed, hoofed mammal. It belongs to the taxonomic family Equidae and is one of two extant subspecies of ''Equus ferus''. The horse has evolved over the past 45 to 55 million yea ...
, sheep
Sheep or domestic sheep (''Ovis aries'') are domesticated, ruminant mammals typically kept as livestock. Although the term ''sheep'' can apply to other species in the genus '' Ovis'', in everyday usage it almost always refers to domesticate ...
, rabbit
Rabbits, also known as bunnies or bunny rabbits, are small mammals in the family Leporidae (which also contains the hares) of the order Lagomorpha (which also contains the pikas). ''Oryctolagus cuniculus'' includes the European rabbit sp ...
, marten
A marten is a weasel-like mammal in the genus ''Martes'' within the subfamily Guloninae, in the family Mustelidae. They have bushy tails and large paws with partially retractile claws. The fur varies from yellowish to dark brown, depending on ...
, badger
Badgers are short-legged omnivores in the family Mustelidae (which also includes the otters, wolverines, martens, minks, polecats, weasels, and ferrets). Badgers are a polyphyletic rather than a natural taxonomic grouping, being united by ...
, deer
Deer or true deer are hoofed ruminant mammals forming the family Cervidae. The two main groups of deer are the Cervinae, including the muntjac, the elk (wapiti), the red deer, and the fallow deer; and the Capreolinae, including the re ...
, boar
The wild boar (''Sus scrofa''), also known as the wild swine, common wild pig, Eurasian wild pig, or simply wild pig, is a suid native to much of Eurasia and North Africa, and has been introduced to the Americas and Oceania. The species is ...
and wolf
The wolf (''Canis lupus''; : wolves), also known as the gray wolf or grey wolf, is a large canine native to Eurasia and North America. More than thirty subspecies of ''Canis lupus'' have been recognized, and gray wolves, as popularly un ...
hair. The brush hairs are tapered to a fine point, a feature vital to the style of wash paintings.
Different brushes have different qualities. A small wolf-hair brush that is tapered to a fine point can deliver an even thin line of ink (much like a pen). A large wool brush (one variation called the 'big cloud') can hold a large volume of water and ink. When the big cloud brush rains down upon the paper, it delivers a graded swath of ink encompassing myriad shades of gray to black.
Inkstick
Ink wash painting is usually done on rice paper (Chinese) or washi
is traditional Japanese paper. The term is used to describe paper that uses local fiber, processed by hand and made in the traditional manner. ''Washi'' is made using fibers from the inner bark of the gampi tree, the mitsumata shrub (''E ...
(Japanese paper) both of which are highly absorbent and unsized. Silk
Silk is a natural protein fiber, some forms of which can be woven into textiles. The protein fiber of silk is composed mainly of fibroin and is produced by certain insect larvae to form cocoons. The best-known silk is obtained from th ...
is also used in some forms of ink painting. Many types of Xuan paper and do not lend themselves readily to a smooth wash the way watercolor paper does. Each brush stroke is visible, so any "wash" in the sense of Western style painting requires partially sized paper. Paper manufacturers today understand artists' demands for more versatile papers and work to produce kinds that are more flexible. If one uses traditional paper, the idea of an "ink wash" refers to a wet-on-wet technique, applying black ink to paper where a lighter ink has already been applied, or by quickly manipulating watery diluted ink once it has been applied to the paper by using a very large brush.
In ink wash paintings, as in calligraphy, artists usually grind inkstick over an inkstone to obtain black ink, but prepared liquid inks ( in Japanese) are also available. Most inksticks are made of soot
Soot ( ) is a mass of impure carbon particles resulting from the incomplete combustion of hydrocarbons. It is more properly restricted to the product of the gas-phase combustion process but is commonly extended to include the residual pyrolysed ...
from pine
A pine is any conifer tree or shrub in the genus ''Pinus'' () of the family (biology), family Pinaceae. ''Pinus'' is the sole genus in the subfamily Pinoideae. The World Flora Online created by the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew and Missouri Botanic ...
or oil combined with animal glue. An artist puts a few drops of water on an inkstone and grinds the inkstick in a circular motion until a smooth, black ink of the desired concentration is made. Prepared liquid inks vary in viscosity, solubility, concentration, etc., but are in general more suitable for practicing Chinese calligraphy than executing paintings. Inksticks themselves are sometimes ornately decorated with landscapes or flowers in bas-relief
Relief is a sculptural method in which the sculpted pieces are bonded to a solid background of the same material. The term '' relief'' is from the Latin verb ''relevo'', to raise. To create a sculpture in relief is to give the impression that th ...
and some are highlighted with gold.
Xuan paper
Paper (Chinese: ''traditional'' 紙, ''simplified'' 纸; Pinyin: ') was first developed in China in the first decade of 100 AD. Previous to its invention, bamboo slips and silks were used for writing material. Several methods of paper production developed over the centuries in China. However, the paper which was considered of highest value was that of the Jingxian in Anhui Province. Xuan paper features great tensile strength, smooth surface, pure and clean texture as well as a clean stroke; it has great resistance to crease, corrosion, moth, and mold. Xuan paper has a special ink penetration effect, which is not readily available in paper made in Western countries. It was first mentioned in ancient Chinese books ''Notes of Past Famous Paintings'' and ''New Book of Tang
The ''New Book of Tang'', generally translated as the "New History of the Tang" or "New Tang History", is a work of official history covering the Tang dynasty in ten volumes and 225 chapters. The work was compiled by a team of scholars of the So ...
''. It was originally produced in the Tang dynasty
The Tang dynasty (, ; zh, t= ), or Tang Empire, was an Dynasties in Chinese history, imperial dynasty of China that ruled from 618 to 907 AD, with an Zhou dynasty (690–705), interregnum between 690 and 705. It was preceded by the Sui dyn ...
in Jing County, which was under the jurisdiction of Xuan Prefecture (Xuanzhou), hence the name Xuan paper. During the Tang dynasty, the paper was often a mixture of hemp
Hemp, or industrial hemp, is a botanical class of '' Cannabis sativa'' cultivars grown specifically for industrial or medicinal use. It can be used to make a wide range of products. Along with bamboo, hemp is among the fastest growing plants ...
(the first fiber used for paper in China) and mulberry fiber.[ originally appeared as "Analysis of modern Chinese paper and treatment of a Chinese woodblock print" in ''The Paper Conservator'', 1997, pp. 48–62]
The materials used in Xuan paper are closely related to the geographical environment of Jingxian. The bark of the ''Pteroceltis tatarinowii
''Pteroceltis tatarinowii'' a species of tree endemic to China and the only extant member of the genus '' Pteroceltis''. Common names include blue sandalwood, wingceltis or qing tan (). Trees grow to tall and are used for timber, the bark fiber ...
'', a common variety of elm, is used as the main material for the production of rice paper in this area. Rice and several other materials were later added to the recipe in the Song and Yuan Dynasties. In those dynasties bamboo
Bamboos are a diverse group of evergreen perennial flowering plants making up the subfamily Bambusoideae of the grass family Poaceae. Giant bamboos are the largest members of the grass family. The origin of the word "bamboo" is uncertain, ...
and mulberry
''Morus'', a genus of flowering plants in the family Moraceae, consists of diverse species of deciduous trees commonly known as mulberries, growing wild and under cultivation in many temperate world regions. Generally, the genus has 64 ident ...
began to be used to produce rice paper as well.[
The production of Xuan paper is about an eighteen-step process – taken in detail over a hundred steps may be counted. Some paper makers keep their process strictly secret. The process includes cooking and bleaching the bark of ''Pteroceltis tatarinowii'' and adding various fruit juices.][
]
Inkstone
The inkstone is not only a traditional Chinese stationery device, but also an important tool of ink painting. It is a stone mortar used for the grinding and containment of ink. In addition to stones, inkstones can be made of clay, bronze, iron and porcelain. This device evolved from the friction tool used to rub dyes about six to seven thousand years ago.
File:CMOC Treasures of Ancient China exhibit - calligraphy brush with dragon design.jpg, Ink brush with golden dragon design, used by the Ming Wanli Emperor
The Wanli Emperor (; 4 September 1563 – 18 August 1620), personal name Zhu Yijun (), was the 14th Emperor of the Ming dynasty, reigned from 1572 to 1620. "Wanli", the era name of his reign, literally means "ten thousand calendars". He was th ...
(1563-1620), China.
File:Ink brush-xiangshan.jpg, Reconstruction of Emperor Qianlong's (1711–1799) writing table, China.
File:Murata Seimin - Brush Rest in the Shape of a Praying Mantis - Walters 541323.jpg, Murata Seimin (1761–1837), Brush rest in the shape of a praying mantis
Mantises are an order (Mantodea) of insects that contains over 2,400 species in about 460 genera in 33 families. The largest family is the Mantidae ("mantids"). Mantises are distributed worldwide in temperate and tropical habitats. They ha ...
, circa 1800 (late Edo), Medium: bronze, Dimensions: 18 cm (7 in), Japan. Collected By the Walters Art Museum
The Walters Art Museum, located in Mount Vernon-Belvedere, Baltimore, Maryland, United States, is a public art museum founded and opened in 1934. It holds collections established during the mid-19th century. The museum's collection was amassed ...
.
File:Inkstick.jpg, Inkstick; carbon-based and made from soot
Soot ( ) is a mass of impure carbon particles resulting from the incomplete combustion of hydrocarbons. It is more properly restricted to the product of the gas-phase combustion process but is commonly extended to include the residual pyrolysed ...
and animal glue, China.
File:Huizhouhukaiwenmo.jpg, Commemorative Chinese inksticks for collectors.
File:松烟制墨法.jpg, Image from the 17th-century technical document ''Tiangong Kaiwu'' () detailing how pine is burned in a furnace at one end and its soot collected at the other for making inkstick, China.
File:Fangmatan paper map.jpg, Fragment of ancient Chinese paper map with features in black ink, found on the chest of the occupant of Tomb 5 of Fangmatan, Gansu in China in 1986, from early Western Han
The Han dynasty (, ; ) was an imperial dynasty of China (202 BC – 9 AD, 25–220 AD), established by Liu Bang (Emperor Gao) and ruled by the House of Liu. The dynasty was preceded by the short-lived Qin dynasty (221–207 BC) and a war ...
, 2nd century BC, .
File:Making Paper 4.PNG, An image of a Ming dynasty woodcut describing five major steps in ancient Chinese papermaking process as outlined by Cai Lun
Cai Lun (; courtesy name: Jingzhong (); – 121 CE), formerly romanized as Ts'ai Lun, was a Chinese eunuch court official of the Eastern Han dynasty. He is traditionally regarded as the inventor of paper and the modern papermaking process ...
in 105 AD. The image is from the 17th-century technical document ''Tiangong Kaiwu
The ''Tiangong Kaiwu'' (), or ''The Exploitation of the Works of Nature'' was a Chinese encyclopedia compiled by Song Yingxing. It was published in May 1637 with funding provided by Song's patron Tu Shaokui.Needham, Volume 5, Part 7, 36.Song, ...
'' (), China.
File:Song Duan inkstone.JPG, A Duan Inkstone of the Song Dynasty-In for making Chinese ink using water and an inkstick, 10th century, China.
File:East Asian calligraphy scheme 01-en.svg, East Asian painting-calligraphy's ink stone, ink stick, and usage.
History and artists
Chinese painters and their influence on East Asia
In Chinese painting
Chinese painting () is one of the oldest continuous artistic traditions in the world. Painting in the traditional style is known today in Chinese as ''guó huà'' (), meaning "national painting" or "native painting", as opposed to Western style ...
, brush painting was one of the " four arts" expected to be learnt by China's class of scholar-official
The scholar-officials, also known as literati, scholar-gentlemen or scholar-bureaucrats (), were government officials and prestigious scholars in Chinese society, forming a distinct social class.
Scholar-officials were politicians and governmen ...
s. Ink wash painting appeared during the Tang dynasty
The Tang dynasty (, ; zh, t= ), or Tang Empire, was an Dynasties in Chinese history, imperial dynasty of China that ruled from 618 to 907 AD, with an Zhou dynasty (690–705), interregnum between 690 and 705. It was preceded by the Sui dyn ...
(618–907), and its early development is credited to Wang Wei (active in the 8th century) and Zhang Zao
Zhang Zao (; December 29, 1962March 8, 2010) was one of the most important Chinese poets of the 20th century. He was considered one of the "Five Masters from Sichuan" in the 80s' Chinese poetry scene, along with other famous poets Bai Hua , Ouyang ...
, among others. In the Ming dynasty
The Ming dynasty (), officially the Great Ming, was an Dynasties in Chinese history, imperial dynasty of China, ruling from 1368 to 1644 following the collapse of the Mongol Empire, Mongol-led Yuan dynasty. The Ming dynasty was the last ort ...
, Dong Qichang
Dong Qichang (; courtesy name Xuanzai (玄宰); 1555–1636), was a Chinese painter, calligrapher, politician, and art theorist of the later period of the Ming dynasty.
Life as a scholar and calligrapher
Dong Qichang was a native of Hua Ting ( ...
would identify two distinct styles: a clearer, grander Northern School or or , Japanese: or ), and a freer, more expressive Southern School ( or or , Japanese: or ), also called "Literati Painting" (, Japanese: ).[ Watson, William, ''Style in the Arts of China'', 1974, Penguin, p. 86-88, ]
Tang, Song and Yuan Dynasties
Western scholars have written that before the Song Dynasty, ink wash was primarily used for representation painting, while in the Yuan Dynasty, expressive painting predominated.[ Chinese historical views have traditionally found it more appropriate to divide the general artistic features of this historical stage by the theory of Southern School and Northern School, as promulgated ]Dong Qichang
Dong Qichang (; courtesy name Xuanzai (玄宰); 1555–1636), was a Chinese painter, calligrapher, politician, and art theorist of the later period of the Ming dynasty.
Life as a scholar and calligrapher
Dong Qichang was a native of Hua Ting ( ...
in the Ming Dynasty.
=Southern School and painters
=
Southern School () of Chinese painting
Chinese painting () is one of the oldest continuous artistic traditions in the world. Painting in the traditional style is known today in Chinese as ''guó huà'' (), meaning "national painting" or "native painting", as opposed to Western style ...
, often called " literati painting" (), is a term used to denote art and artists which stand in opposition to the formal Northern School of painting. Representing painters are Wang Wei, Dong Yuan, and so on. The Southern School has had a profound impact on Japanese and Southeast Asian paintings.
Wang Wei (; 699–759), Zhang Zao
Zhang Zao (; December 29, 1962March 8, 2010) was one of the most important Chinese poets of the 20th century. He was considered one of the "Five Masters from Sichuan" in the 80s' Chinese poetry scene, along with other famous poets Bai Hua , Ouyang ...
( or ) and Dong Yuan (, Gan: ; ) are important representatives of early Chinese ink wash painting of the Southern School. Wang Wei was a Chinese poet, musician, painter, and politician during the Tang dynasty
The Tang dynasty (, ; zh, t= ), or Tang Empire, was an Dynasties in Chinese history, imperial dynasty of China that ruled from 618 to 907 AD, with an Zhou dynasty (690–705), interregnum between 690 and 705. It was preceded by the Sui dyn ...
, 8th century. Wang Wei is the most important representative of early Chinese ink wash painting. He believed that in all forms of painting, ink wash painting is the most advanced.[ Zhang Zao was a Chinese painter, painting theorist and politician during the ]Tang dynasty
The Tang dynasty (, ; zh, t= ), or Tang Empire, was an Dynasties in Chinese history, imperial dynasty of China that ruled from 618 to 907 AD, with an Zhou dynasty (690–705), interregnum between 690 and 705. It was preceded by the Sui dyn ...
, 8th century. He created the method of using fingers instead of brush to draw ink wash painting.[
Dong Yuan was a Chinese ]painter
Painting is the practice of applying paint, pigment, color or other medium to a solid surface (called the "matrix" or "support"). The medium is commonly applied to the base with a brush, but other implements, such as knives, sponges, and ...
during the Five Dynasties
The Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period (), from 907 to 979, was an era of political upheaval and division in 10th-century Imperial China. Five dynastic states quickly succeeded one another in the Central Plain, and more than a dozen conc ...
(10th century). His ink wash painting style is considered by Dong Qichang
Dong Qichang (; courtesy name Xuanzai (玄宰); 1555–1636), was a Chinese painter, calligrapher, politician, and art theorist of the later period of the Ming dynasty.
Life as a scholar and calligrapher
Dong Qichang was a native of Hua Ting ( ...
to be the most typical style of Southern School.
Chinese ink wash painters such as Li Cheng (; 919–967), Courtesy name
A courtesy name (), also known as a style name, is a name bestowed upon one at adulthood in addition to one's given name. This practice is a tradition in the East Asian cultural sphere, including China, Japan, Korea, and Vietnam.Ulrich Theo ...
(), Fan Kuan
Fan Zhongzheng (c. 960 – c. 1030), courtesy name Zhongli, better known by his pseudonym Fan Kuan (), was a Chinese landscape painter of the Song dynasty.
''Travelers among Mountains and Streams'', a large hanging scroll, is Fan Kuan's best kno ...
(, ), courtesy name
A courtesy name (), also known as a style name, is a name bestowed upon one at adulthood in addition to one's given name. This practice is a tradition in the East Asian cultural sphere, including China, Japan, Korea, and Vietnam.Ulrich Theo ...
"Zhongli" and "Zhongzheng", better known by his pseudonym "Fan Kuan" and Guo Xi () () had a great influence on East Asian ink wash painting. Li Cheng was a Chinese painter
Chinese painting () is one of the oldest continuous artistic traditions in the world. Painting in the traditional style is known today in Chinese as ''guó huà'' (), meaning "national painting" or "native painting", as opposed to Western style ...
of the Song dynasty. He was influenced by Jing Hao, Juran. Li Cheng has a profound impact on Japanese and Korean painters.
Fan Kuan was a Chinese landscape painter
Landscape painting, also known as landscape art, is the depiction of natural scenery such as mountains, valleys, trees, rivers, and forests, especially where the main subject is a wide view—with its elements arranged into a coherent composi ...
of the Song dynasty. He has a profound impact on Japanese and Korean paintings.
Guoxi was a Chinese landscape
A landscape is the visible features of an area of land, its landforms, and how they integrate with natural or man-made features, often considered in terms of their aesthetic appeal.''New Oxford American Dictionary''. A landscape includes the ...
painter from Henan Province who lived during the Northern Song dynasty.[Ci hai: Page 452] One text entitled "The Lofty Message of Forest and Streams" ( ) is attributed to him.
As representatives of scholar painting (or "Literati Painting", the part of the Southern School), painters such as Su Shi, Mi Fu and Mi Youren, especially Muqi, had a decisive influence on East Asian ink wash painting. Su Shi
Su Shi (; 8 January 1037 – 24 August 1101), courtesy name Zizhan (), art name Dongpo (), was a Chinese calligrapher, essayist, gastronomer, pharmacologist, poet, politician, and travel writer during the Song dynasty. A major personality of ...
(; 8 January 1037 – 24 August 1101), courtesy name Zizhan (Chinese: 子瞻), art name Dongpo (Chinese: 東坡), was a Chinese poet, writer, politician, calligrapher, painter, pharmacologist, and gastronome of the Song dynasty.
Mi Fu
Mi Fu (, also given as Mi Fei, 1051–1107 CE)Barnhart: 373. His courtesy name was Yuanzhang (元章) with several sobriquets: Nangong (南宮), Lumen Jushi (鹿門居士), Xiangyang Manshi (襄陽漫士), and Haiyue Waishi (海岳外史) was a ...
(, also given as Mi Fei, 1051–1107)[Barnhart: 373. His courtesy name was Yuanzhang () with several sobriquets: Nangong (), Lumen Jushi (), Xiangyang Manshi (), and Haiyue Waishi ()] was a Chinese painter, poet
A poet is a person who studies and creates poetry. Poets may describe themselves as such or be described as such by others. A poet may simply be the creator ( thinker, songwriter, writer, or author) who creates (composes) poems (oral or w ...
, and calligrapher born in Taiyuan
Taiyuan (; ; ; Mandarin pronunciation: ; also known as (), ()) is the capital and largest city of Shanxi Province, People's Republic of China. Taiyuan is the political, economic, cultural and international exchange center of Shanxi Province. ...
during the Song dynasty.
Mi Youren (, 1074–1153) was a Chinese painter, poet, and calligrapher born in Taiyuan during the Song dynasty. He was the eldest son of Mi Fu.
Muqi
Muqi or Muxi (; Japanese: Mokkei; 1210?–1269?), also known as Fachang (), was a Chinese Chan Buddhist monk and painter who lived in the 13th century, around the end of the Southern Song dynasty (1127–1279). Today, he is considered to be one ...
(; Japanese: Mokkei; 1210?–1269?), also known as Fachang (), was a Chinese Chan Buddhist monk
A monk (, from el, μοναχός, ''monachos'', "single, solitary" via Latin ) is a person who practices religious asceticism by monastic living, either alone or with any number of other monks. A monk may be a person who decides to dedic ...
and painter who lived in the 13th century, around the end of the Southern Song dynasty
The Song dynasty (; ; 960–1279) was an imperial dynasty of China that began in 960 and lasted until 1279. The dynasty was founded by Emperor Taizu of Song following his usurpation of the throne of the Later Zhou. The Song conquered the res ...
(1127–1279). Today, he is considered to be one of the greatest Chan painters in history. His ink paintings, such as the Daitoku-ji triptych and '' Six Persimmons'' are regarded as essential Chan paintings. Muqi's style of painting has also profoundly impacted painters from later periods to follow, especially monk painters in Japan
Japan ( ja, 日本, or , and formally , ''Nihonkoku'') is an island country in East Asia. It is situated in the northwest Pacific Ocean, and is bordered on the west by the Sea of Japan, while extending from the Sea of Okhotsk in the n ...
.
Four Masters of the Yuan dynasty
The Four Masters of the Yuan dynasty () is a name used to collectively describe the four Chinese painters: Huang Gongwang, Wu Zhen, Ni Zan, and Wang Meng, who were active during the Yuan dynasty (1271–1368). They were revered during the Ming ...
() is a name used to collectively describe the four Chinese painters Huang Gongwang (, 1269-1354), Wu Zhen (, 1280–1354), Ni Zan (; 1301–1374), and Wang Meng (王蒙, Wáng Méng; ''Zi'': Shūmíng 叔明, ''Hao'': Xiāngguāng Jūshì 香光居士) (c. 1308 – 1385), who were active during the Yuan dynasty
The Yuan dynasty (), officially the Great Yuan (; xng, , , literally "Great Yuan State"), was a Mongol-led imperial dynasty of China and a successor state to the Mongol Empire after its division. It was established by Kublai, the fif ...
(1271–1368). They were revered during the Ming dynasty
The Ming dynasty (), officially the Great Ming, was an Dynasties in Chinese history, imperial dynasty of China, ruling from 1368 to 1644 following the collapse of the Mongol Empire, Mongol-led Yuan dynasty. The Ming dynasty was the last ort ...
and later periods as major exponent
Exponentiation is a mathematical operation, written as , involving two numbers, the '' base'' and the ''exponent'' or ''power'' , and pronounced as " (raised) to the (power of) ". When is a positive integer, exponentiation corresponds to r ...
s of the tradition of "literati painting
Ink wash painting ( zh, t=水墨畫, s=水墨画, p=shuǐmòhuà; ja, 水墨画, translit=suiboku-ga or ja, 墨絵, translit=sumi-e; ko, 수묵화, translit=sumukhwa) is a type of Chinese ink brush painting which uses black ink, such as tha ...
" (), which was concerned more with individual expression and learning than with outward representation and immediate visual appeal.
Other notable painters from the Yuan period include Gao Kegong (; 1248–1310), also a poet, and was known for his landscapes, and Fang Congyi
Fang Congyi (; 1302–1393), courtesy name Wuyu (), sobriquets Fanghu (), Bumang Daoren (), Jinmen Yuke () and Guigu Shanren (), was a famed Chinese painter during the Yuan dynasty.
Fang was a native of Guixi, Jiangxi Province. In his youth ...
.
File:Dong Yuan Mountain Hall.jpg, Dong Yuan (934–962) ''Dongtian Mountain Hall'' (), ink and light color on silk, 10th century, the Five Dynasties
The Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period (), from 907 to 979, was an era of political upheaval and division in 10th-century Imperial China. Five dynastic states quickly succeeded one another in the Central Plain, and more than a dozen conc ...
(Chinese). National Palace Museum
The National Palace Museum (; Pha̍k-fa-sṳ: Kwet-li̍p kù-kiung pok-vu̍t-yèn), is a museum in Taipei, Republic of China (Taiwan). It has a permanent collection of nearly 700,000 pieces of Chinese artifacts and artworks, many of which w ...
, Taipei.
File:Dong Yuan. Jiangnan Summer View. 50х320см. Liaoning Provincial Museum.jpg, Dong Yuan, ''Jiangnan Summer View'', ink and light color on silk, 10th century, the Five Dynasties
The Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period (), from 907 to 979, was an era of political upheaval and division in 10th-century Imperial China. Five dynastic states quickly succeeded one another in the Central Plain, and more than a dozen conc ...
, China. Liaoning Provincial Museum.
File:Li Cheng,temple boudhiste dans les montagnes.jpg, Li Cheng (; 919–967), ''A Solitary Temple Amid Clearing Peaks'' (), ink and light color on silk. . 11th century, China. Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art.
File:Fan Kuan - Travelers Among Mountains and Streams - Google Art Project.jpg, Fan Kuan
Fan Zhongzheng (c. 960 – c. 1030), courtesy name Zhongli, better known by his pseudonym Fan Kuan (), was a Chinese landscape painter of the Song dynasty.
''Travelers among Mountains and Streams'', a large hanging scroll, is Fan Kuan's best kno ...
(, ), ''Travellers among Mountains and Streams'' (), ink and slight color on silk, dimensions of . 11th century, China.[Ebrey, ''Cambridge Illustrated History of China'', 162.] National Palace Museum
The National Palace Museum (; Pha̍k-fa-sṳ: Kwet-li̍p kù-kiung pok-vu̍t-yèn), is a museum in Taipei, Republic of China (Taiwan). It has a permanent collection of nearly 700,000 pieces of Chinese artifacts and artworks, many of which w ...
, Taipei[Liu, 50.]
File:Guo_Xi_-_Early_Spring_(large).jpg, Guo Xi () (), '' Early Spring'', signed and dated 1072, ink and light lolor on silk. 11th century, China. Hanging scroll, ink and color on silk. National Palace Museum
The National Palace Museum (; Pha̍k-fa-sṳ: Kwet-li̍p kù-kiung pok-vu̍t-yèn), is a museum in Taipei, Republic of China (Taiwan). It has a permanent collection of nearly 700,000 pieces of Chinese artifacts and artworks, many of which w ...
, Taipei.
File:Guo Xi Gugun 11.jpg, Guo Xi, ''Ping Yuan Tu'' (窠石平遠圖), 1078, ink and light lolor on silk, China. Collected by the Palace Museum
The Palace Museum () is a huge national museum complex housed in the Forbidden City at the core of Beijing, China. With , the museum inherited the imperial royal palaces from the Ming and Qing dynasties of China and opened to the public in ...
, Beijing.
File:Kuo Hsi 001.jpg, Guo Xi, ''Clearing Autumn Skies over Mountains and Valleys'', ink and light lolor on silk, China. Northern Song Dynasty
The Song dynasty (; ; 960–1279) was an imperial dynasty of China that began in 960 and lasted until 1279. The dynasty was founded by Emperor Taizu of Song following his usurpation of the throne of the Later Zhou. The Song conquered the res ...
, detail from a horizontal scroll.
File:Su Shi-Vieil arbre et rocher étrange.jpg, Su Shi
Su Shi (; 8 January 1037 – 24 August 1101), courtesy name Zizhan (), art name Dongpo (), was a Chinese calligrapher, essayist, gastronomer, pharmacologist, poet, politician, and travel writer during the Song dynasty. A major personality of ...
(, 1037 – 1101), ''Withered Tree and Strange Rock'', ink on Xuan paper, 11th century, China.
File:六柿图.jpg, Muqi
Muqi or Muxi (; Japanese: Mokkei; 1210?–1269?), also known as Fachang (), was a Chinese Chan Buddhist monk and painter who lived in the 13th century, around the end of the Southern Song dynasty (1127–1279). Today, he is considered to be one ...
(, 1210?–1269?), ''Six Persimmons'', , ink on Xuan paper, 13th century, Southern Song (Chinese). Collected in Daitokuji, Kyoto, Japan.
File:Guanyin, Monkeys, and Crane.jpg, Muqi
Muqi or Muxi (; Japanese: Mokkei; 1210?–1269?), also known as Fachang (), was a Chinese Chan Buddhist monk and painter who lived in the 13th century, around the end of the Southern Song dynasty (1127–1279). Today, he is considered to be one ...
, ''Guanyin, Crane, and Gibbons'', Southern Song (Chinese), 13th century, set of three hanging scrolls, ink and color on silk, height: , collected in Daitokuji, Kyoto, Japan. Designated National Treasure.
File:Gao Kegong Evening Clouds.jpg, Gao Kegong (1248–1310), ''Evening Clouds'' (), ink and color on Xuan paper mounted on hanging scroll, 13th century, China. Collected by the Palace Museum
The Palace Museum () is a huge national museum complex housed in the Forbidden City at the core of Beijing, China. With , the museum inherited the imperial royal palaces from the Ming and Qing dynasties of China and opened to the public in ...
, Beijing.
File:富春山居圖(無用師卷).jpg, Huang Gongwang (, 1269-1354), ''Dwelling in the Fuchun Mountains'', , ink on Xuan paper, 1348 and 1351, collected by National Palace Museum
The National Palace Museum (; Pha̍k-fa-sṳ: Kwet-li̍p kù-kiung pok-vu̍t-yèn), is a museum in Taipei, Republic of China (Taiwan). It has a permanent collection of nearly 700,000 pieces of Chinese artifacts and artworks, many of which w ...
, Taipei.
File:Huang Gongwang. Stone Cliff at the Pond of Heaven.1341. 139,4x57,3. Palace Museum, Beijing.jpg, Huang Gongwang, ''Stone Cliff at the Pond of Heaven'', 1341, ink and light lolor on silk, China. Collected by Palace Museum
The Palace Museum () is a huge national museum complex housed in the Forbidden City at the core of Beijing, China. With , the museum inherited the imperial royal palaces from the Ming and Qing dynasties of China and opened to the public in ...
, Beijing.
File:Wang Meng Dwelling in the Qingbian Mountains. ink on paper. 1366. 141x42,2 cm. Shanghai Museum.jpg, Wang Meng (, 1271–1368), ''Dwelling in the Qingbian Mountains'' (), ink on Xuan paper, 141x42,2 cm, 1366, China. Collected by Shanghai Museum.
File:1335Wu Zhen, Crooked Pine MET.jpg, Wu Zhen (, 1280–1354), ''Crooked Pine'', 1335, ink on silk, collected by Metropolitan Museum of Art.
File:Ni Zan - Six Gentlemen.jpg, Ni Zan (; 1301–1374), '' Six Gentlemen'' (), ink on Xuan paper mounted on hanging scroll, dimensions: W 33.3 cm, H 61.9 cm, 1345, China. Collected by Shanghai Museum
The Shanghai Museum is a museum of ancient Chinese art, situated on the People's Square in the Huangpu District of Shanghai, China. Rebuilt at its current location in 1996, it is considered one of China's first world-class modern museums and fa ...
.
File:Ni Zan - Enjoying the Wilderness in an Autumn Grove - 1989.363.38 - Metropolitan Museum of Art.jpg, Ni Zan, ''Enjoying the Wilderness in an Autumn Grove'' (), medium: hanging scroll; ink on Xuan paper, dimensions: 38 5/8 × 27 1/8 in. (98.1 × 68.9 cm), 1339, China. Collected by Metropolitan Museum of Art
The Metropolitan Museum of Art of New York City, colloquially "the Met", is the largest art museum in the Americas. Its permanent collection contains over two million works, divided among 17 curatorial departments. The main building at 1000 ...
.
=Northern School and painters
=
Northern School () was a manner of Chinese landscape painting centered on a loose group of artists who worked and lived in Northern China during the Five Dynasties period
The Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period (), from 907 to 979, was an era of political upheaval and division in 10th-century Imperial China. Five dynastic states quickly succeeded one another in the Central Plain, and more than a dozen concu ...
that occupied the time between the collapse of the Tang dynasty
The Tang dynasty (, ; zh, t= ), or Tang Empire, was an Dynasties in Chinese history, imperial dynasty of China that ruled from 618 to 907 AD, with an Zhou dynasty (690–705), interregnum between 690 and 705. It was preceded by the Sui dyn ...
and the rise of the Song. Representing painters are Ma Yuan, Xia Gui, and so on. The style stands in opposition to the Southern School () of Chinese painting. Northern School has a profound impact on Japanese and Southeast Asian
Southeast Asia, also spelled South East Asia and South-East Asia, and also known as Southeastern Asia, South-eastern Asia or SEA, is the geographical south-eastern region of Asia, consisting of the regions that are situated south of mainland ...
paintings.
Li Tang (, courtesy name
A courtesy name (), also known as a style name, is a name bestowed upon one at adulthood in addition to one's given name. This practice is a tradition in the East Asian cultural sphere, including China, Japan, Korea, and Vietnam.Ulrich Theo ...
Xigu (); c. 1050 – 1130) of the Northern School, especially Ma Yuan (; ) and Xia Gui's ink wash painting modeling and techniques have a profound influence on Japanese and Korean ink wash paintings. Li Tang was a Chinese landscape painter
Landscape painting, also known as landscape art, is the depiction of natural scenery such as mountains, valleys, trees, rivers, and forests, especially where the main subject is a wide view—with its elements arranged into a coherent composi ...
who practised at Kaifeng
Kaifeng () is a prefecture-level city in east-central Henan province, China. It is one of the Eight Ancient Capitals of China, having been the capital eight times in history, and is best known for having been the Chinese capital during the Nort ...
and Hangzhou
Hangzhou ( or , ; , , Standard Chinese, Standard Mandarin pronunciation: ), also Chinese postal romanization, romanized as Hangchow, is the capital and most populous city of Zhejiang, China. It is located in the northwestern part of the prov ...
during the Song dynasty
The Song dynasty (; ; 960–1279) was an imperial dynasty of China that began in 960 and lasted until 1279. The dynasty was founded by Emperor Taizu of Song following his usurpation of the throne of the Later Zhou. The Song conquered the res ...
. He forms a link between earlier painters such as Guo Xi, Fan Kuan
Fan Zhongzheng (c. 960 – c. 1030), courtesy name Zhongli, better known by his pseudonym Fan Kuan (), was a Chinese landscape painter of the Song dynasty.
''Travelers among Mountains and Streams'', a large hanging scroll, is Fan Kuan's best kno ...
and Li Cheng and later artists such as Xia Gui and Ma Yuan. He perfected the technique of "axe-cut" brush-strokes.
Ma Yuan was a Chinese painter of the Song dynasty. His works, together with that of Xia Gui, formed the basis of the so-called Ma-Xia () school of painting, and are considered among the finest from the period. His works has inspired both Chinese artists of the Zhe School, as well as the great early Japanese painters Shūbun and Sesshū.
Xia Gui (; fl.
''Floruit'' (; abbreviated fl. or occasionally flor.; from Latin for "they flourished") denotes a date or period during which a person was known to have been alive or active. In English, the unabbreviated word may also be used as a noun indicatin ...
1195–1225), courtesy name Yuyu (), was a Chinese landscape painter of the Song dynasty. Very little is known about his life, and only a few of his works survive, but he is generally considered one of China's greatest artists. He continued the tradition of Li Tang, further simplifying the earlier Song style to achieve a more immediate, striking effect. Together with Ma Yuan, he founded the so-called Ma-Xia () school, one of the most important of the period. Although Xia was popular during his lifetime, his reputation suffered after his death, together with that of all Southern Song academy painters. Nevertheless, a few artists, including the Japan
Japan ( ja, 日本, or , and formally , ''Nihonkoku'') is an island country in East Asia. It is situated in the northwest Pacific Ocean, and is bordered on the west by the Sea of Japan, while extending from the Sea of Okhotsk in the n ...
ese master Sesshū, continued Xia's tradition for hundreds of years, until the early 17th century.
Liang Kai (; ) was a Chinese painter of the Southern Song Dynasty. He was also known as "Madman Liang" because of his very informal pictures. His ink wash painting style has a huge influence on East Asia, especially Japan.
Yan Hui
Yan Hui (–481 BC) was a Chinese philosopher. He was the favorite disciple of Confucius and one of the most revered figures of Confucianism. He is venerated in Confucian temples as one of the Four Sages.
Names
Yan Hui is also known by his c ...
(); was a late 13th century Chinese painter who lived during the Southern Song and early Yuan dynasties. Yan Hui's style of painting has also profoundly impacted the painters in Japan.
File:Li Tang - Wind in Pines Among a Myriad Valleys.jpg, Li Tang (, 1050 – 1130), ''Wind in Pines Among a Myriad Valleys'', , 1124, ink and color on silk, 188.7 cm (74.2 in); Width: 139.8 cm (55 in), collected by National Palace Museum, Taipei.
File:南宋 傳李唐 晉文公復國圖 卷-Duke Wen of Jin Recovering His State MET DP152407.jpg, Li Tang, ''Duke Wen of Jin Recovering His State'', handscroll, ink and color on silk, collected by the Metropolitan Museum of Art
File:Li Tang, Boy and water buffalo, PM, Beijing.jpg, Li Tang, ''Boy and water buffalo'', collected by the Palace Museum, Beijing.
File:Liang Kai-Shakyamuni Emerging from the Mountains.jpg, Liang Kai (, 1140–1210), ''Shakyamuni Emerging from the Mountains'', , Hanging scroll, ink and color on silk, , collected by Tokyo National Museum.
File:Ma Yuan - Dancing and Singing- Peasants Returning from Work.jpg, Ma Yuan (, 1160–1225), ''Dancing and Singing'' (''Peasants Returning from Work'', ), ink and light lolor on silk, 13th century, Southern Song (Chinese), Palace Museum
The Palace Museum () is a huge national museum complex housed in the Forbidden City at the core of Beijing, China. With , the museum inherited the imperial royal palaces from the Ming and Qing dynasties of China and opened to the public in ...
, Beijing
}
Beijing ( ; ; ), Chinese postal romanization, alternatively romanized as Peking ( ), is the Capital city, capital of the China, People's Republic of China. It is the center of power and development of the country. Beijing is the world's Li ...
.
File:Immortal Riding a Dragon.jpg, Ma Yuan, ''Immortal Riding a Dragon'', , ink and light colors on silk, height: 108.1 cm (42.5 in), width: 52.6 cm (20.7 in), hanging scroll, Southern Song Dynasty, early 13th century. Collected by National Palace Museum, Taipei.
File:Xia Gui, Streams and Mountains with a Clear Distant View, detail.jpg, Detail from the hand scroll ''Pure and Remote View of Streams and Mountains'', ink on Xuan paper, one of Xia Gui's most important works, 13th century China. collected by National Palace Museum, Taipei.
File:Xia Gui - Sailboat in Rainstorm.jpg, Xia Gui (; fl.
''Floruit'' (; abbreviated fl. or occasionally flor.; from Latin for "they flourished") denotes a date or period during which a person was known to have been alive or active. In English, the unabbreviated word may also be used as a noun indicatin ...
1195–1225), ''Sailboat in Rainstorm'', , ink and light colors on silk, 23.9 × 25.1 cm (9.4 × 9.8 in), 13th century China. Collected by Boston Museum of Fine Arts
The Museum of Fine Arts (often abbreviated as MFA Boston or MFA) is an art museum in Boston, Massachusetts. It is the 20th-largest art museum in the world, measured by public gallery area. It contains 8,161 paintings and more than 450,000 works ...
.
File:ShiDe by Yan Hui.jpg, Yan Hui
Yan Hui (–481 BC) was a Chinese philosopher. He was the favorite disciple of Confucius and one of the most revered figures of Confucianism. He is venerated in Confucian temples as one of the Four Sages.
Names
Yan Hui is also known by his c ...
(), (), ink and light color on silk, 13th century, Yuan Dynasty (Chinese). Tokyo National Museum.
Ming and Qing Dynasties
Four Masters of the Ming dynasty
The Four Masters of the Ming dynasty () are a traditional grouping in Chinese art history of four famous Chinese painters that lived during the Ming dynasty. The group consists of Shen Zhou (1427–1509), Wen Zhengming (1470–1559), Tang Yin (1 ...
() are a traditional grouping in Chinese art history of four famous Chinese painters of the Ming dynasty
The Ming dynasty (), officially the Great Ming, was an Dynasties in Chinese history, imperial dynasty of China, ruling from 1368 to 1644 following the collapse of the Mongol Empire, Mongol-led Yuan dynasty. The Ming dynasty was the last ort ...
. The group are Shen Zhou (, 1427–1509), Wen Zhengming (, 1470–1559), both of the Wu School, Tang Yin
Tang Yin (; 1470–1524), courtesy name Bohu (), was a Chinese painter, calligrapher, and poet of the Ming dynasty period. Even though he was born during the Ming dynasty, many of his paintings, especially those of people, were illustrated with el ...
(, 1470–1523), and Qiu Ying
Qiu Ying (; 1494 – 1552)Cihai page 211. was a Chinese painter of the Ming dynasty who specialised in the ''gongbi'' brush technique.
Early life
Qiu Ying's courtesy name was Shifu (), and his art name was Shizhou (). He was born to a peasan ...
(, ). They were approximate contemporaries, with Shen Zhou the teacher of Wen Zhengming, while the other two studied with Zhou Chen. Their styles and subject matter were varied.[Rawson, p. 340]
Xu Wei
Xu Wei (, 1521–1593), other department Qingteng Shanren (), was a Chinese painter, playwright, poet, and tea master during the Ming dynasty. A noted painter, poet, writer and dramatist famed for his artistic expressiveness.Cihai: Page 802. ...
(, 1521–1593) and Chen Chun
Chen Chun (; 1483–1544), courtesy name Daofu and art name Baiyang Shanren, was a Ming Dynasty artist, calligrapher, and poet. Born into a wealthy family of scholar-officials in Suzhou, he learned calligraphy from Wen Zhengming, one of the Four ...
(; 1483–1544) are the main painters of the bold and unconstrained style of literati painting, and their ink wash painting is characterized by the incisive and fluent ink and wash. Their ink wash painting style is considered to have the typical characteristics of the Historical Oriental art.[ Xu Wei, other department "Qingteng Shanren" (), was a ]Ming dynasty
The Ming dynasty (), officially the Great Ming, was an Dynasties in Chinese history, imperial dynasty of China, ruling from 1368 to 1644 following the collapse of the Mongol Empire, Mongol-led Yuan dynasty. The Ming dynasty was the last ort ...
Chinese painter, poet, writer and dramatist famed for his artistic expressiveness.[Cihai: Page 802.]
Chen Chun was a Ming Dynasty artist. Born into a wealthy family of scholar-officials
The scholar-officials, also known as literati, scholar-gentlemen or scholar-bureaucrats (), were government officials and prestigious scholars in Chinese society, forming a distinct social class.
Scholar-officials were politicians and governmen ...
in Suzhou
Suzhou (; ; Suzhounese: ''sou¹ tseu¹'' , Mandarin: ), alternately romanized as Soochow, is a major city in southern Jiangsu province, East China. Suzhou is the largest city in Jiangsu, and a major economic center and focal point of trad ...
, he learned calligraphy
Calligraphy (from el, link=y, καλλιγραφία) is a visual art related to writing. It is the design and execution of lettering with a pen, ink brush, or other writing instrument. Contemporary calligraphic practice can be defined ...
from Wen Zhengming, one of the Four Masters of the Ming dynasty
The Four Masters of the Ming dynasty () are a traditional grouping in Chinese art history of four famous Chinese painters that lived during the Ming dynasty. The group consists of Shen Zhou (1427–1509), Wen Zhengming (1470–1559), Tang Yin (1 ...
. Chén Chún later broke with Wen to favor a more freestyle method of ink wash painting.
Dong Qichang
Dong Qichang (; courtesy name Xuanzai (玄宰); 1555–1636), was a Chinese painter, calligrapher, politician, and art theorist of the later period of the Ming dynasty.
Life as a scholar and calligrapher
Dong Qichang was a native of Hua Ting ( ...
(; 1555–1636) of the Ming Dynasty and the Four Wangs
The Four Wangs () were four Chinese landscape painters in the 17th century, all with the surname Wang. They are best known for their accomplishments in '' shan shui'' painting.
The painters
They were Wang Shimin (1592–1680), Wang Jian (1 ...
() of the Qing Dynasty are representative painters of retro-style ink wash paintings that imitated the painting style before the Yuan Dynasty. Dong Qichang was a Chinese painter, calligrapher, politician, and art theorist of the later period of the Ming Dynasty
The Ming dynasty (), officially the Great Ming, was an Dynasties in Chinese history, imperial dynasty of China, ruling from 1368 to 1644 following the collapse of the Mongol Empire, Mongol-led Yuan dynasty. The Ming dynasty was the last ort ...
. He is the founder of the theory of Southern School and Northern School in ink wash painting. His theoretical system has a great influence on the painting concept and practice of East Asian countries, including Japan and Korea.[
Four Wangs were four Chinese landscape painters in the 17th century, all called Wang (surname Wang). They are best known for their accomplishments in painting.They were Wang Shimin (1592–1680), Wang Jian (1598–1677), Wang Hui (1632–1717) and Wang Yuanqi (1642–1715).]
Bada Shanren
Bada Shanren (; 1626 – 1705), born Zhu Da (), was a Chinese Buddhist monk, calligrapher, and painter of the ink wash painting style. He was of royal descent, being a direct offspring of the Ming dynasty prince Zhu Quan who had a feudal establ ...
(, born "Zhu Da"; ), Shitao (; other department "Yuan Ji" (), 1642–1707) and Eight Eccentrics of Yangzhou () are the innovative masters of ink wash painting in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties. Bada Shanren, other department "Bada Shanren" (), was a Han Chinese
The Han Chinese () or Han people (), are an East Asian ethnic group native to China. They constitute the world's largest ethnic group, making up about 18% of the global population and consisting of various subgroups speaking distinctive v ...
painter of ink wash painting and a calligrapher. He was of royal descent, being a direct offspring of the Ming dynasty
The Ming dynasty (), officially the Great Ming, was an Dynasties in Chinese history, imperial dynasty of China, ruling from 1368 to 1644 following the collapse of the Mongol Empire, Mongol-led Yuan dynasty. The Ming dynasty was the last ort ...
prince Zhu Quan
Zhu Quan (; 27 May 1378 – 12 October 1448), the Prince of Ning (), was a Chinese historian, military commander, musician, and playwright. He was the 17th son of the Hongwu Emperor of the Ming dynasty. During his life, he served as a mil ...
who had a feudal establishment in Nanchang
Nanchang (, ; ) is the capital of Jiangxi Province, People's Republic of China. Located in the north-central part of the province and in the hinterland of Poyang Lake Plain, it is bounded on the west by the Jiuling Mountains, and on the east ...
. Art historians have named him as a brilliant painter of the period.
Shitao, born into the Ming dynasty
The Ming dynasty (), officially the Great Ming, was an Dynasties in Chinese history, imperial dynasty of China, ruling from 1368 to 1644 following the collapse of the Mongol Empire, Mongol-led Yuan dynasty. The Ming dynasty was the last ort ...
imperial clan as "Zhu Ruoji" , was one Chinese landscape painter
Landscape painting, also known as landscape art, is the depiction of natural scenery such as mountains, valleys, trees, rivers, and forests, especially where the main subject is a wide view—with its elements arranged into a coherent composi ...
in early Qing Dynasty (1636–1912).
Eight Eccentrics of Yangzhou is the name for a group of eight Chinese painters active in the 18th century, who were known in the Qing Dynasty for rejecting the orthodox ideas about painting in favor of a style deemed expressive and individualist.
Xu Gu (, 1824–1896) was a Chinese monk painter and poet during the Qing Dynasty. His ink wash paintings give the audience a sense of abstraction and illusion.
File:Lofty Mt.Lu by Shen Zhou.jpg, Shen Zhou (, 1427–1509), ''Lofty Mount Lu'' (), Ming dynasty, 1467 (明 成化丁亥), Medium: Hanging scroll, ink and colors on Xuan paper, Dimensions: 193.8 × 98.1 cm (height × width), China. Collected by National Palace Museum
The National Palace Museum (; Pha̍k-fa-sṳ: Kwet-li̍p kù-kiung pok-vu̍t-yèn), is a museum in Taipei, Republic of China (Taiwan). It has a permanent collection of nearly 700,000 pieces of Chinese artifacts and artworks, many of which w ...
.
File:Xu Wei Grapes.jpg, Xu Wei
Xu Wei (, 1521–1593), other department Qingteng Shanren (), was a Chinese painter, playwright, poet, and tea master during the Ming dynasty. A noted painter, poet, writer and dramatist famed for his artistic expressiveness.Cihai: Page 802. ...
(, 1521–1593), ''Grapes'', , hanging scroll, ink on silk, 166.3 x 64.5 cm (height x width). Painting is located in the Palace Museum, Beijing.
File:Wanluan Thatched Hall by Dong Qichang.jpg, Dong Qichang
Dong Qichang (; courtesy name Xuanzai (玄宰); 1555–1636), was a Chinese painter, calligrapher, politician, and art theorist of the later period of the Ming dynasty.
Life as a scholar and calligrapher
Dong Qichang was a native of Hua Ting ( ...
(; 1555–1636), ''Wanluan Thatched Hall'', , 1597, hanging scroll, ink on Xuan paper, Ming Dynasty, China.
File:Lotus and Birds by Zhu Da.jpg, Zhu Da (, 1626–1705), ''Lotus and Birds'', ink on Xuan paper, 17th century, Qing Dynasty, China, Shanghai Museum
The Shanghai Museum is a museum of ancient Chinese art, situated on the People's Square in the Huangpu District of Shanghai, China. Rebuilt at its current location in 1996, it is considered one of China's first world-class modern museums and fa ...
.
File:ShiTao-Pine Pavilion Near A Spring.jpg, Shitao (, 1642–1707), ''Pine Pavilion Near a Spring'', ink on Xuan paper, 1675, China. The collection of the Shanghai Museum
The Shanghai Museum is a museum of ancient Chinese art, situated on the People's Square in the Huangpu District of Shanghai, China. Rebuilt at its current location in 1996, it is considered one of China's first world-class modern museums and fa ...
.
File:清 石濤(朱若極) 山水圖 冊-Searching for Immortals MET DP162813.jpg, Shitao, ''Searching for Immortals'', ink and light color on paper, 17th century, China. The collection of the Metropolitan Museum of Art.
File:Fisherman and Fisherwoman by Huang Shen.jpg, Huang Shen
Huang Shen (1687–1772) was a Chinese painter during the Qing Dynasty.Cihai: Page 2054. Huang was born in Ninghua, Fujian province, to a poor family. His courtesy names were Gongshou () and Gongmao (). His pseudonym was Yingpiaozi ().
He be ...
(, 1687–1772) (one of the Eight Eccentrics of Yangzhou), ''Firsherman and Fisherwoman'', ink on Xuan paper, 18th century, Qing Dynasty, China, collection of the Nanjing Museum
The Nanjing Museum () is located in Nanjing, the capital of Jiangsu Province in East China. With an area of , it is one of the largest museums in China. The museum has over 400,000 items in its permanent collection, making it one of the largest ...
.
File:XISHANGY.jpg, Xu Gu (, 1824–1896), ''High Mountains and Streams'', , ink on Xuan paper, 19th century, Qing Dynasty, China.
Modern times
Modern and contemporary Chinese freehand ink wash painting is the most famous of the Shanghai School
''Haipai'' (, Shanghainese: ''hepha'', ; literally " hangai style") refers to the avant-garde but unique "East Meets West" culture from Shanghai in the 20th and 21st centuries. It is a part of the culture of Shanghai.
Etymology
The term was co ...
, and the most representative ones are the following painters. Wu Changshuo
Wu Changshuo (, September 12, 1844 – November 29, 1927, also romanised as Wu Changshi, ), born Wu Junqing (), was a Chinese calligrapher, painter, and seal artist of the late Qing Period.
Life
Wu was born into a scholarly family in Huzhou ...
( 12 September 1844 – 29 November 1927, also romanised as Wu Changshi, ), born Wu Junqing (), was a prominent painter, calligrapher and seal artist of the late Qing Period. He is the leader of the Shanghai School. Wu Changshuo's style of painting has profoundly impacted the paintings in Japan.
Pu Hua (; ) was a Chinese landscape painter and calligrapher during the Qing dynasty. His style name was 'Zuo Ying'. Pu painted landscapes and ink bamboo in an unconventional style of free and easy brush strokes. He is one of the important representatives of the Shanghai School.
Wang Zhen (; 1867–1938), commonly known by his courtesy name Wang Yiting (), was a prominent businessman and celebrated modern Chinese artist of the Shanghai School.
Qi Baishi (, 1 January 1864–16 September 1957) was a Chinese painter noted for the whimsical, often playful style of his ink wash painting works.
Huang Binhong
Huáng Bīnhóng (; 1865–1955) was a Chinese literati painter and art historian born in Jinhua, Zhejiang province. His ancestral home was She County, Anhui province.Cihai: Page 2056. He was the grandson of artist Huang Fengliu. He would lat ...
(; 1865–1955) was a Chinese literati painter and art historian
Art history is the study of aesthetic objects and visual expression in historical and stylistic context. Traditionally, the discipline of art history emphasized painting, drawing, sculpture, architecture, ceramics and decorative arts; yet today, ...
born in Jinhua
, alternately romanized as Kinhwa, is a prefecture-level city in central Zhejiang province in eastern China. It borders the provincial capital of Hangzhou to the northwest, Quzhou to the southwest, Lishui to the south, Taizhou to the east ...
, Zhejiang
Zhejiang ( or , ; , also romanized as Chekiang) is an eastern, coastal province of the People's Republic of China. Its capital and largest city is Hangzhou, and other notable cities include Ningbo and Wenzhou. Zhejiang is bordered by Ji ...
province. His ancestral home was She County, Anhui
Anhui , (; formerly romanized as Anhwei) is a landlocked province of the People's Republic of China, part of the East China region. Its provincial capital and largest city is Hefei. The province is located across the basins of the Yangtze Riv ...
province. He was the grandson of artist Huang Fengliu. He would later be associated with Shanghai
Shanghai (; , , Standard Chinese, Standard Mandarin pronunciation: ) is one of the four Direct-administered municipalities of China, direct-administered municipalities of the China, People's Republic of China (PRC). The city is located on the ...
and finally Hangzhou
Hangzhou ( or , ; , , Standard Chinese, Standard Mandarin pronunciation: ), also Chinese postal romanization, romanized as Hangchow, is the capital and most populous city of Zhejiang, China. It is located in the northwestern part of the prov ...
. He is considered one of the last innovators in the literati style of painting and is noted for his freehand landscapes.
Important painters who have absorbed Western sketching methods to improve Chinese ink wash painting include Gao Jianfu, Xu Beihong and Liu Haisu, etc. Gao Jianfu (1879–1951; 高剑父, pronounced "Gou Gim Fu" in Cantonese) was a Chinese painter and social activist. He is known for leading the Lingnan School's effort to modernize Chinese traditional ink wash painting as a "new national art."Gao Minglu
Gao Minglu (born 29 October 1949) is a scholar in Chinese contemporary art. He is the Chair of the Department of Art History, Professor for Distinguished Service, and Chair of Art and is an instructor at the University of Pittsburgh. He is also ...
, and Norman Bryson. ''Inside Out: New Chinese Art''. San Francisco: San Francisco Museum of Modern Art, 1998, page 26.
Xu Beihong
Xu or XU may refer to:
People and characters
* Xu (surname), one of two Chinese surnames ( or /), transliterated as Xu in English
* ǃXu, a name for the ǃKung group of Bushmen; may also refer to the ǃKung language or the ǃKung people
* ǃXu ...
(; 19 July 1895 – 26 September 1953), also known as "Ju Péon", was a Chinese painter. He was primarily known for his Chinese ink paintings of horses and birds and was one of the first Chinese artists to articulate the need for artistic expressions that reflected a modern China at the beginning of the 20th century. He was also regarded as one of the first to create monumental oil paintings with epic Chinese themes – a show of his high proficiency in an essential Western art technique. He was one of the four pioneers of Chinese modern art who earned the title of " The Four Great Academy Presidents".
Liu Haisu
Liu Haisu (; 16 March 1896 – 7 August 1994) was a prominent twentieth-century Chinese painter and a noted art educator. He excelled in Chinese painting and oil painting. He was one of the four pioneers of Chinese modern art who earned the titl ...
(; 16 March 1896 – 7 August 1994) was a prominent 20th century Chinese painter and a noted art educator. He excelled in Chinese painting and oil painting. He was one of the four pioneers of Chinese modern art who earned the title of "The Four Great Academy Presidents".[
Pan Tianshou, Zhang Daqian and Fu Baoshi are important ink wash painters who stick to the tradition of Chinese classical Literati Painting.][ ]Pan Tianshou
Pan Tianshou (; 1897–1971) was a Chinese painter and art educator.
Pan was born in Guanzhuang, Ninghai County, Zhejiang Province, and graduated from Zhejiang First Normal School (now Hangzhou High School). He studied Chinese traditional painti ...
(; 1897–1971) was a Chinese painter and art educator. Pan was born in Guanzhuang, Ninghai County, Zhejiang Province
Zhejiang ( or , ; , also romanized as Chekiang) is an eastern, coastal province of the People's Republic of China. Its capital and largest city is Hangzhou, and other notable cities include Ningbo and Wenzhou. Zhejiang is bordered by Jiang ...
, and graduated from Zhejiang First Normal School (now Hangzhou High School). He studied Chinese traditional painting with Wu Changshuo
Wu Changshuo (, September 12, 1844 – November 29, 1927, also romanised as Wu Changshi, ), born Wu Junqing (), was a Chinese calligrapher, painter, and seal artist of the late Qing Period.
Life
Wu was born into a scholarly family in Huzhou ...
. Later he created his own ink wash painting style and built the foundation of Chinese traditional painting education. He was persecuted during the Cultural Revolution
The Cultural Revolution, formally known as the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution, was a sociopolitical movement in the People's Republic of China (PRC) launched by Mao Zedong in 1966, and lasting until his death in 1976. Its stated goa ...
until his death in 1971.
Zhang Daqian (; 10 May 1899 – 2 April 1983) was one of the best-known and most prodigious Chinese artists of the 20th century. Originally known as a (traditionalist) painter, by the 1960s he was also renowned as a modern impressionist and expressionist painter. In addition, he is regarded as one of the most gifted master forgers of the 20th century.
Fu Baoshi (; 1904–1965), was a Chinese painter. He also taught in the Art Department of Central University (now Nanjing University
Nanjing University (NJU; ) is a national public research university in Nanjing, Jiangsu. It is a member of C9 League and a Class A Double First Class University designated by the Chinese central government. NJU has two main campuses: the Xian ...
). His works of landscape painting employed skillful use of dots and inking methods, creating a new technique encompassing many varieties within traditional rules.
Shi Lu Shi Lu (; 1919–1982), born Feng Yaheng (), was a Chinese painter, wood block printer, poet and calligrapher. He based his pseudonym on two artists who greatly influenced him, the landscape painter Shitao and writer Lu Xun. Life and art
Shi Lu ...
(; 1919–1982), born "Feng Yaheng" (), was a Chinese painter, wood block printer, poet and calligrapher. He based his pseudonym on two artists who greatly influenced him, the landscape painter Shitao and writer Lu Xun
Zhou Shuren (25 September 1881 – 19 October 1936), better known by his pen name Lu Xun (or Lu Sun; ; Wade–Giles: Lu Hsün), was a Chinese writer, essayist, poet, and literary critic. He was a leading figure of modern Chinese literature. ...
. He created two different ink wash painting styles.
File:Momeitu.jpg, Wu Changshuo
Wu Changshuo (, September 12, 1844 – November 29, 1927, also romanised as Wu Changshi, ), born Wu Junqing (), was a Chinese calligrapher, painter, and seal artist of the late Qing Period.
Life
Wu was born into a scholarly family in Huzhou ...
, ''Ink Plum Blossom'', , ink on Xuan paper, 1918,Modern times, China.
File:墨蝦圖.jpg, Qi Baishi, ''Ink Shrimp'', , ink on Xuan paper, 1947, Modern times, China.
File:Qi Baishi Eagle.jpg, QiBaishi, ''Eagle Standing on Pine Tree, Four-character Couplet in Seal Script'', , ink on Xuan paper, 266 × 100 cm (104.7 × 39.3 in), 1946, Modern times, China.
File:Wcswtdsbd.jpg, Huang Binhong
Huáng Bīnhóng (; 1865–1955) was a Chinese literati painter and art historian born in Jinhua, Zhejiang province. His ancestral home was She County, Anhui province.Cihai: Page 2056. He was the grandson of artist Huang Fengliu. He would lat ...
, ''Time and Tide'', , ink on Xuan paper, 1950s, Modern times, China.
File:Wu Changshuo - Chrysanthemums - 2002.142.2 - Yale University Art Gallery.jpg, Chen Shizeng (, 1876–1923), ''Ganoderma and Rock'', , ink and color on Xuan paper, Modern times, China.
File:高劍父1.jpg, Gao Jianfu (, 1879–1951), ''Fire on the Eastern Battlefield'', , ink and color on Xuan paper, 1930s, 166 x 92 cm. Lingnan School of Painting in Guangzhou Museum of Art, China.
File:XuBeihong-Pferd.jpg, Xu Beihong
Xu or XU may refer to:
People and characters
* Xu (surname), one of two Chinese surnames ( or /), transliterated as Xu in English
* ǃXu, a name for the ǃKung group of Bushmen; may also refer to the ǃKung language or the ǃKung people
* ǃXu ...
, ''Galloping Horse'', , ink on Xuan paper, Modern times, China.
Other countries in East Asia
Since the Tang Dynasty, Japan, Korea, and East Asian countries have extensively studied Chinese painting and ink wash painting.[ Josetsu () who immigrated to Japan from China has been called the "Father of Japanese ink painting".][ East Asian styles have mainly developed from the painting styles of Southern School and Northern School.]
Japan
In Japan, the style was introduced in the 14th century, during the Muromachi period
The is a division of Japanese history running from approximately 1336 to 1573. The period marks the governance of the Muromachi or Ashikaga shogunate (''Muromachi bakufu'' or ''Ashikaga bakufu''), which was officially established in 1338 by ...
(1333–1573) through Zen Buddhist monasteries, and in particular Josetsu
was one of the first '' suiboku'' (ink wash) style Zen Japanese painters in the Muromachi Period (15th century). He was probably also a teacher of Tenshō Shūbun at the Shōkoku-ji monastery in Kyoto. A Chinese immigrant, he was naturalised in ...
, a painter who immigrated from China and taught the first major early painter Tenshō Shūbun
was a Japanese Zen Buddhist monk and painter of the Muromachi period.Nussbaum, Louis-Frédéric. (2005). "''Shūbun''" in
History
Shūbun was born in the late 14th century in Ōmi Province and became a professional painter around 1403. He se ...
(d. ). Both he and his pupil Sesshū Tōyō (1420–1506) were monks, although Sesshū eventually left the clergy, and spent a year or so in China in 1468–69. By the end of the period the style had been adopted by several professional or commercial artists, especially from the large Kanō school
The is one of the most famous schools of Japanese painting. The Kanō school of painting was the dominant style of painting from the late 15th century until the Meiji period which began in 1868, by which time the school had divided into many ...
founded by Kanō Masanobu
was a Japanese painter. He was the chief painter of the Ashikaga shogunate and is generally considered the founder of the Kanō school of painting. Kano Masanobu specialized in Zen paintings as well as elaborate paintings of Buddhist deities and ...
(1434–1530); his son Kanō Motonobu
was a Japanese painter and calligrapher. He was a member of the Kanō school of painting. Through his political connections, patronage, organization, and influence he was able to make the Kanō school into what it is today. The system was respon ...
was also very important. In the Japanese way, the most promising pupils married daughters of the family, and changed their names to Kanō. The school continued to paint in the traditional Japanese and other coloured styles as well.
A Japanese innovation of the Azuchi–Momoyama period (1568–1600) was to use the monochrome style on a much larger scale in folding screen
A folding screen, also known as pingfeng (), is a type of free-standing furniture consisting of several frames or panels, which are often connected by hinges or by other means. They have practical and decorative uses, and can be made in a variety ...
s, often produced in sets so that they ran all round even large rooms. The of about 1595 is a famous example; only some 15% of the paper is painted.
was one of the first ''suiboku
Ink wash painting ( zh, t=水墨畫, s=水墨画, p=shuǐmòhuà; ja, 水墨画, translit=suiboku-ga or ja, 墨絵, translit=sumi-e; ko, 수묵화, translit=sumukhwa) is a type of Chinese ink brush painting which uses black ink, such as tha ...
'' (ink wash) style Zen Japanese painters in the Muromachi Period
The is a division of Japanese history running from approximately 1336 to 1573. The period marks the governance of the Muromachi or Ashikaga shogunate (''Muromachi bakufu'' or ''Ashikaga bakufu''), which was officially established in 1338 by ...
(15th century). He was probably also a teacher of Tenshō Shūbun
was a Japanese Zen Buddhist monk and painter of the Muromachi period.Nussbaum, Louis-Frédéric. (2005). "''Shūbun''" in
History
Shūbun was born in the late 14th century in Ōmi Province and became a professional painter around 1403. He se ...
at the Shōkoku-ji monastery in Kyoto
Kyoto (; Japanese: , ''Kyōto'' ), officially , is the capital city of Kyoto Prefecture in Japan. Located in the Kansai region on the island of Honshu, Kyoto forms a part of the Keihanshin metropolitan area along with Osaka and Kobe. , the c ...
. A Chinese immigrant, he was naturalised in 1470 and is known as the "Father of Japanese ink painting".
Kanō school
The is one of the most famous schools of Japanese painting. The Kanō school of painting was the dominant style of painting from the late 15th century until the Meiji period which began in 1868, by which time the school had divided into many ...
, a Japanese ink wash painting genre, was born under the significant influence of Chinese Taoism and Buddhist culture. was the leader of Kano school, laid the foundation for the school's dominant position in Japanese mainstream painting for centuries. He was mainly influenced by Xia Gui (active in 1195–1225), a Chinese court painter of the Southern Song Dynasty. He was the chief painter of the Ashikaga shogunate and is generally considered the founder of the Kanō school
The is one of the most famous schools of Japanese painting. The Kanō school of painting was the dominant style of painting from the late 15th century until the Meiji period which began in 1868, by which time the school had divided into many ...
of painting. Kano Masanobu specialized in Zen paintings as well as elaborate paintings of Buddhist deities and Bodhisattvas.
was a Japanese Zen Buddhist monk and painter of the Muromachi period
The is a division of Japanese history running from approximately 1336 to 1573. The period marks the governance of the Muromachi or Ashikaga shogunate (''Muromachi bakufu'' or ''Ashikaga bakufu''), which was officially established in 1338 by ...
. He was deeply influenced by the Northern School () of Chinese painting
Chinese painting () is one of the oldest continuous artistic traditions in the world. Painting in the traditional style is known today in Chinese as ''guó huà'' (), meaning "national painting" or "native painting", as opposed to Western style ...
and Josetsu
was one of the first '' suiboku'' (ink wash) style Zen Japanese painters in the Muromachi Period (15th century). He was probably also a teacher of Tenshō Shūbun at the Shōkoku-ji monastery in Kyoto. A Chinese immigrant, he was naturalised in ...
.[Nussbaum, Louis-Frédéric. (2005). "''Shūbun''" in ]
Sesshū Tōyō ( ja, 雪舟 等楊; Oda Tōyō since 1431, also known as ''Tōyō'', ''Unkoku'', or ''Bikeisai''; 1420 – 26 August 1506) was the most prominent Japanese master of ink and wash painting from the middle Muromachi period
The is a division of Japanese history running from approximately 1336 to 1573. The period marks the governance of the Muromachi or Ashikaga shogunate (''Muromachi bakufu'' or ''Ashikaga bakufu''), which was officially established in 1338 by ...
. He was deeply influenced by the Northern School () of Chinese painting
Chinese painting () is one of the oldest continuous artistic traditions in the world. Painting in the traditional style is known today in Chinese as ''guó huà'' (), meaning "national painting" or "native painting", as opposed to Western style ...
, especially Ma Yuan and Xia Gui.[Appert, Georges. (1888)]
''Ancien Japon,'' p. 80.
After studying landscape painting in China, he drew “秋冬山水図”.This painting was drawn the landscape of Song dynasty in China.
He painted the natural landscape of winter.The feature of this painting is the thick line that represents the cliff.
and mainly imitated the ink wash painting styles of the Chinese Song Dynasty monk painter Muqi
Muqi or Muxi (; Japanese: Mokkei; 1210?–1269?), also known as Fachang (), was a Chinese Chan Buddhist monk and painter who lived in the 13th century, around the end of the Southern Song dynasty (1127–1279). Today, he is considered to be one ...
.[ Sesson Shukei was one of the main representatives of Japanese ink wash painting, a learned and prolific Zen monk painter. He studied a wide range of early Chinese ink wash painting styles and played an important role in the development of Japanese Zen ink wash painting. Colleagues of Chinese ink painter ]Muqi
Muqi or Muxi (; Japanese: Mokkei; 1210?–1269?), also known as Fachang (), was a Chinese Chan Buddhist monk and painter who lived in the 13th century, around the end of the Southern Song dynasty (1127–1279). Today, he is considered to be one ...
(active in 13th century) first brought Muxi painting to Japan in the late 13th century. Japanese Zen monks follow and learn the gibbon pictures painted by Chinese monk painter Muqi. By the late 15th century, the animal image of Muqi style had become a hot topic in large-scale Japanese painting projects.
The smaller, more purist and less flamboyant Hasegawa school
The Hasegawa school (長谷川派, ''-ha'') was a school (style) of Japanese painting founded in the 16th century by Hasegawa Tōhaku and disappeared around the beginning of the 18th century.
The school painted mostly ''fusuma'' (sliding doors), ...
was founded by Hasegawa Tōhaku (1539–1610), and lasted until the 18th century. The (meaning "Southern painting") or ("literati") style or school ran from the 18th century until the death of Tomioka Tessai (1837–1924) who was widely regarded as the last of the artists.
Hasegawa Tōhaku was a Japanese painter
Painting is the practice of applying paint, pigment, color or other medium to a solid surface (called the "matrix" or "support"). The medium is commonly applied to the base with a brush, but other implements, such as knives, sponges, and ...
and founder of the Hasegawa school
The Hasegawa school (長谷川派, ''-ha'') was a school (style) of Japanese painting founded in the 16th century by Hasegawa Tōhaku and disappeared around the beginning of the 18th century.
The school painted mostly ''fusuma'' (sliding doors), ...
. He is considered one of the great painters of the Azuchi–Momoyama period (1573–1603), and he is best known for his '' byōbu'' folding screens, such as '' Pine Trees'' and ''Pine Tree and Flowering Plants'' (both registered National Treasures), or the paintings in walls and sliding doors at Chishaku-in
Chishaku-in (智積院) is a Buddhist temple in Higashiyama-ku, Kyoto, Japan. It is affiliated with Shingon-shū Chizan-ha Buddhism. It was established in 1601.
The temple has a historic garden that was said to be a favourite of Sen no Rikyū.
...
, attributed to him and his son (also National Treasures). He was deeply influenced by Chinese painting
Chinese painting () is one of the oldest continuous artistic traditions in the world. Painting in the traditional style is known today in Chinese as ''guó huà'' (), meaning "national painting" or "native painting", as opposed to Western style ...
of Song Dynasty
The Song dynasty (; ; 960–1279) was an imperial dynasty of China that began in 960 and lasted until 1279. The dynasty was founded by Emperor Taizu of Song following his usurpation of the throne of the Later Zhou. The Song conquered the res ...
, especially Liang Kai and Muqi
Muqi or Muxi (; Japanese: Mokkei; 1210?–1269?), also known as Fachang (), was a Chinese Chan Buddhist monk and painter who lived in the 13th century, around the end of the Southern Song dynasty (1127–1279). Today, he is considered to be one ...
.["Suiboku-ga."](_blank)
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 10 Dec. 2009
Mibura-Dera Temple Website. 10 Dec 2009
The ink wash paintings of Mi Fu
Mi Fu (, also given as Mi Fei, 1051–1107 CE)Barnhart: 373. His courtesy name was Yuanzhang (元章) with several sobriquets: Nangong (南宮), Lumen Jushi (鹿門居士), Xiangyang Manshi (襄陽漫士), and Haiyue Waishi (海岳外史) was a ...
and his son had a profound influence on Japanese ink painters, and Ike no Taiga is one of them. was a Japanese painter and calligrapher born in Kyoto
Kyoto (; Japanese: , ''Kyōto'' ), officially , is the capital city of Kyoto Prefecture in Japan. Located in the Kansai region on the island of Honshu, Kyoto forms a part of the Keihanshin metropolitan area along with Osaka and Kobe. , the c ...
during the Edo period
The or is the period between 1603 and 1867 in the history of Japan, when Japan was under the rule of the Tokugawa shogunate and the country's 300 regional '' daimyo''. Emerging from the chaos of the Sengoku period, the Edo period was character ...
. Together with Yosa Buson, he perfected the ''bunjinga'' (or '' nanga'') genre. The majority of his works reflected his passion for classical Chinese culture and painting techniques, though he also incorporated revolutionary and modern techniques into his otherwise very traditional paintings. As a ''bunjin'' (文人, literati, man of letters), Ike was close to many of the prominent social and artistic circles in Kyoto, and in other parts of the country, throughout his lifetime.
Korea
In Korea, the Dohwaseo or court academy was very important, and most major painters came from it, although the emphasis of the academy was on realistic decorative works and official portraits, so something of a break from this was required. However the high official and painter Gang Se-hwang
Kang Sehwang (1713–1791) was a high government official but also a representative painter, calligrapher and art critic of the mid Joseon period. He was born in Jinju, Gyeongsangnam-do, the son of Kang Hyeon. He entered royal service at over s ...
and others championed amateur literati or painting in the Chinese sensibility. Many painters made both Chinese-style landscapes and genre painting
Genre painting (or petit genre), a form of genre art, depicts aspects of everyday life by portraying ordinary people engaged in common activities. One common definition of a genre scene is that it shows figures to whom no identity can be attache ...
s of everyday life, and there was a tradition of more realistic landscapes of real locations, as well as mountains as fantastical as any Chinese paintings, for which the Taebaek Mountains
The Taebaek Mountains are a mountain range that stretches across North Korea and South Korea. They form the main ridge of the Korean peninsula.
Geography
The Taebaek mountains are located along the eastern edge of the peninsula and run along ...
along the eastern side of Korea offered plenty of inspiration.
An Gyeon
An Gyeon was a Korean painter of the early Joseon period. He was born in Jigok, Seosan, Chungcheongnam-do. He entered royal service as a member of the Dohwaseo, the official painters of the Joseon court. In 1447, he drew (몽유도원도), a lan ...
was a painter of the early Joseon period. He was born in Jigok, Seosan, Chungcheongnam-do
South Chungcheong Province ( ko, 충청남도, ''Chungcheongnam-do''), also known as Chungnam, is a province of South Korea. South Chungcheong has a population of 2,059,871 (2014) and has a geographic area of 8,204 km2 (3,168 sq mi) located ...
. He entered royal service as a member of the Dohwaseo, the official painters of the Joseon court, and drew (몽유도원도) for Prince Anpyeong in 1447 which is currently stored at Tenri University. He was deeply influenced by the Southern School () of Chinese painting
Chinese painting () is one of the oldest continuous artistic traditions in the world. Painting in the traditional style is known today in Chinese as ''guó huà'' (), meaning "national painting" or "native painting", as opposed to Western style ...
, especially Li Cheng and Guo Xi.
Byeon Sang-byeok
Byeon Sangbyeok was an 18th century Korean painting, Korean painter of the Miryang Byeon clan during the late period of the Korean Joseon Dynasty (1392–1910). Byeon is famous for his precise depictions of animals and people in detailed brus ...
was a Korean painter of the Miryang
Miryang (perhaps pronounced as Milbeol using Idu script), formerly also spelled as 推火郡 (probably pronounced as Milbeol or Miribeol using Idu script), Milbeol (密伐) and Milseong (密城), is a city in Gyeongsangnam-do Province, South Ko ...
Byeon clan during the late period of the Korea
Korea ( ko, 한국, or , ) is a peninsular region in East Asia. Since 1945, it has been divided at or near the 38th parallel, with North Korea (Democratic People's Republic of Korea) comprising its northern half and South Korea (Republic ...
n Joseon Dynasty
Joseon (; ; Middle Korean: 됴ᇢ〯션〮 Dyǒw syéon or 됴ᇢ〯션〯 Dyǒw syěon), officially the Great Joseon (; ), was the last dynastic kingdom of Korea, lasting just over 500 years. It was founded by Yi Seong-gye in July 1392 and r ...
(1392–1910). Byeon is famous for his precise depictions of animals and people in detailed brushwork. Byeon was deeply influenced by the Court Painting () of Chinese painting
Chinese painting () is one of the oldest continuous artistic traditions in the world. Painting in the traditional style is known today in Chinese as ''guó huà'' (), meaning "national painting" or "native painting", as opposed to Western style ...
, especially Huang Quan.
The Korean painters influenced by Northern School in Song Dynasty include Gang Hui-an, Kim Hong-do, Jang Seung-eop and so on. Gang Hui-an
Gang Huian (1417?-1464), pen name Injae 인재, was a prominent scholar and painter of the early Joseon period. He was good at poetry, calligraphy, and painting. He entered royal service by passing gwageo in 1441 under the reign of king Sejong ...
(1417?–1464), pen name Injae 인재, was a prominent scholar and painter of the early Joseon period. He was good at poetry, calligraphy, and painting. He entered royal service by passing gwageo
The ''gwageo'' or ''kwago'' were the national civil service examinations under the Goryeo and Joseon dynasties of Korea. Typically quite demanding, these tests measured candidates' ability of writing composition and knowledge of the Chinese clas ...
in 1441 under the reign of king Sejong
Sejong of Joseon (15 May 1397 – 8 April 1450), personal name Yi Do ( Korean: 이도; Hanja: 李祹), widely known as Sejong the Great ( Korean: 세종대왕; Hanja: 世宗大王), was the fourth ruler of the Joseon dynasty of Korea. I ...
(1397–1418–1450).[ ]
Kim Hong-do
Gim Hongdo (김홍도, born 1745, died 1806?-1814?), also known as Kim Hong-do, most often styled Danwon (단원), was a full-time painter of the Joseon period of Korea. He was together a pillar of the establishment and a key figure of the new ...
(김홍도, born 1745, died 1806?–1814?), also known as "Kim Hong-do", most often styled "Danwon" (단원), was a full-time painter of the Joseon period of Korea. He was together a pillar of the establishment and a key figure of the new trends of his time, the 'true view painting'. Gim Hong-do was an exceptional artist in every field of traditional painting. His ink wash paintings of figures are deeply influenced by the Eight Eccentrics of Yangzhou.
Jang Seung-eop
Jang Seung-eop (1843 – 1897) (commonly known by his pen name Owon) was a painter of the late Joseon Dynasty in Korea. His life was dramatized in the award-winning 2002 film '' Chi-hwa-seon'' directed by Im Kwon-taek. He was one of the few pai ...
(1843–1897) (commonly known by his pen name "Owon") was a painter of the late Joseon Dynasty
Joseon (; ; Middle Korean: 됴ᇢ〯션〮 Dyǒw syéon or 됴ᇢ〯션〯 Dyǒw syěon), officially the Great Joseon (; ), was the last dynastic kingdom of Korea, lasting just over 500 years. It was founded by Yi Seong-gye in July 1392 and r ...
in Korea
Korea ( ko, 한국, or , ) is a peninsular region in East Asia. Since 1945, it has been divided at or near the 38th parallel, with North Korea (Democratic People's Republic of Korea) comprising its northern half and South Korea (Republic ...
. His life was dramatized in the award-winning 2002 film ''Chi-hwa-seon
''Chi-hwa-seon'' or ''Chwi-hwa-seon'', (also known as ''Painted Fire'', ''Strokes of Fire'' or ''Drunk on Women and Poetry''), is a 2002 South Korean drama film directed by Im Kwon-taek about Jang Seung-eop (commonly known by his pen name, Owon), ...
'' directed by Im Kwon-taek. He was one of the few painters to hold a position of rank in the Joseon court.
Jeong Seon ( ko, 정선) (1676–1759) was a Korean landscape painter, also known by his pen name "Kyomjae" ("humble study"). His works include ink and oriental water paintings, such as ''Inwangjesaekdo
Inwangjesaekdo ("Clearing After Rain in Mt. Inwangsan" or "After Rain at Mt. Inwang") is a landscape painting by the famous Jeong Seon. It was painted during the reign of Joseon Dynasty King Yeongjo in 1751, at his birthplace in Cheongun-dong at ...
'' (1751), ''Geumgang jeondo
Geumgang jeondo (금강전도 金剛全圖) is a famous landscape painted by Jeong Seon during the reign of King Yeongjo. The title literally means "General view of Mt. Geumgangsan" or The Diamond Mountains). It was classified as the 217th Nationa ...
'' (1734), and ''Ingokjeongsa'' (1742), as well as numerous "true-view" landscape paintings on the subject of Korea and the history of its culture. He is counted among the most famous Korean painters. His style is realistic rather than abstract.
File:Hyônen zu by Josetsu.jpg, Josetsu
was one of the first '' suiboku'' (ink wash) style Zen Japanese painters in the Muromachi Period (15th century). He was probably also a teacher of Tenshō Shūbun at the Shōkoku-ji monastery in Kyoto. A Chinese immigrant, he was naturalised in ...
(A Chinese immigrant, "Father of Japanese ink wash painting"),[ , ink on paper, , 1415, Japan.
File:Kano_Motonobu_狩野元信,_The_Four_Accomplishments,_mid-16th_century.jpg, ]Kanō Masanobu
was a Japanese painter. He was the chief painter of the Ashikaga shogunate and is generally considered the founder of the Kanō school of painting. Kano Masanobu specialized in Zen paintings as well as elaborate paintings of Buddhist deities and ...
, ''The Four Accomplishments'', ink and light lolor on silk, 67 in. × 12 ft. 6 in. (170.2 × 381 cm), mid-16th century, Japan. Collected by the Metropolitan Museum of Art.[
File:Ahn Gyeon-sasipalgyeongdo 8 mandong late winter.jpg, Ahn Gyeon, ''Late Winter'' (만동), ink on silk, 15th century. Korea.
File:Joseon-Kang Huian-Gosagwansudo.jpg, Gang Hui-an, ''Scholar gazing at the running river'', ink on silk, Gosagwansudo, 15th century. Korea.
File:SesshuToyo.jpg, Sesshū Tōyō (1420-1506), ''Autumn Landscape'' , ink on silk, Japan.
File:Landscape by Sesshu (Ohara).jpg, Sesshū, ''Landscape'', Mountain landscapes are by far the most common scenes depicted in ink wash ]landscape painting
Landscape painting, also known as landscape art, is the depiction of natural scenery such as mountains, valleys, trees, rivers, and forests, especially where the main subject is a wide view—with its elements arranged into a coherent compo ...
s, Japan.[
File:Sesson_Shūkei_雪村周継,_Gibbons_in_a_Landscape,_1570.jpg, Sesson Shūkei (雪村 周継), ''Gibbons in a Landscape'', ink on Xuan paper, 62 in. x 11 ft. 5 in. (157.5 x 348 cm), 1570, Japan. Collected by the Metropolitan Museum of Art.][
File:Ikeno Taiga 001.jpg, Ike no Taiga, ''Fishing in Springtime'', ink and light color on silk, 1747, Japan. Collected by ]Cleveland Museum of Art
The Cleveland Museum of Art (CMA) is an art museum in Cleveland, Ohio, located in the Wade Park District, in the University Circle neighborhood on the city's east side. Internationally renowned for its substantial holdings of Asian and Egyptian ...
.
File:Ike Taiga - Orchids - 1975.268.94 - Metropolitan Museum of Art.jpg, Ike no Taiga, ''Orchids'', between 1723 and 1776, ink on Xuan paper, Japan. Collected by Metropolitan Museum of Art
The Metropolitan Museum of Art of New York City, colloquially "the Met", is the largest art museum in the Americas. Its permanent collection contains over two million works, divided among 17 curatorial departments. The main building at 1000 ...
.
File:Gunseondo.jpg, Kim Hong-do
Gim Hongdo (김홍도, born 1745, died 1806?-1814?), also known as Kim Hong-do, most often styled Danwon (단원), was a full-time painter of the Joseon period of Korea. He was together a pillar of the establishment and a key figure of the new ...
, ''Gunseondo'' (군선도, 群仙圖), ink and color on Xuan paper, 1776, Korea.
File:Owon-Hochwido.jpg, Jang Seung-eop
Jang Seung-eop (1843 – 1897) (commonly known by his pen name Owon) was a painter of the late Joseon Dynasty in Korea. His life was dramatized in the award-winning 2002 film '' Chi-hwa-seon'' directed by Im Kwon-taek. He was one of the few pai ...
, ''Double Eagle'', ink on Xuan paper, 19th century, Korea.
See also
*Bird-and-flower painting
Bird-and-flower painting, called () in Chinese, is a kind of Chinese painting with a long tradition in China and is considered one of the treasures of Chinese culture. The was named after its subject matter. It originated in the Tang dynasty w ...
* Daoism
*Dhyāna in Buddhism
In the oldest texts of Buddhism, ''dhyāna'' () or ''jhāna'' () is a component of the training of the mind ('' bhavana''), commonly translated as meditation, to withdraw the mind from the automatic responses to sense-impressions, "burn up" th ...
* Four Gentlemen
*
*
* Ink-wash animation
* Cantonese school of painting
* Modern European Ink Painting
* Northern School
*Shanghai School
''Haipai'' (, Shanghainese: ''hepha'', ; literally " hangai style") refers to the avant-garde but unique "East Meets West" culture from Shanghai in the 20th and 21st centuries. It is a part of the culture of Shanghai.
Etymology
The term was co ...
*
* Southern School
* Wash (visual arts)
Notes
References
*Cihai Editorial Committee (辭海編輯委員會), ''Cihai
The ''Cihai'' is a large-scale dictionary and encyclopedia of Standard Mandarin Chinese. The Zhonghua Book Company published the first ''Cihai'' edition in 1938, and the Shanghai Lexicographical Publishing House revised editions in 1979, 1989, ...
, '', Shanghai: Shanghai Lexicographical Publishing House (上海辭書出版社), 1979.
*Max Loehr
Max Loehr (4 December 1903 - 16 September 1988) was an art historian and professor of Chinese art at Harvard University from 1960 to 1974.
As an authority on Chinese art, Loehr published eight books and numerous articles on ancient Chinese paint ...
, ''The Great Painters of China'', Oxford: Phaidon Press, 1980.
*Dunn, Michael, ''The Art of East Asia'', ed. Gabriele Fahr-Becker, Könemann, Volume 2, 1998.
*Farrer, Anne, in Rawson, Jessica (ed). ''The British Museum Book of Chinese Art'', British Museum Press, 2007 (2nd edn).
* Jenyns, Soame, ''A Background to Chinese Painting'' (with a Preface for Collectors by W. W. Winkworth), 1935, Sidgwick & Jackson, Ltd
* Rawson, Jessica (ed). ''The British Museum Book of Chinese Art'', British Museum Press, 2007 (2nd edn).
* Sickman, Laurence, in: Sickman L. & Soper A., ''The Art and Architecture of China'', Pelican History of Art, Penguin (now Yale History of Art), 3rd ed 1971. LOC 70-125675
*Stanley-Baker, Joan, ''Japanese Art'', Thames and Hudson, World of Art, 2000 (2nd edn).
* Little, Stephen; Eichman, Shawn; Shipper, Kristofer; Ebrey, Patricia Buckley, ''Taoism and the Arts of China'', University of California Press
The University of California Press, otherwise known as UC Press, is a publishing house associated with the University of California that engages in academic publishing. It was founded in 1893 to publish scholarly and scientific works by facul ...
, 2000-01-01.
External links
The Palace Museum
National Palace Museum
Shanghai Museum
James Cahill
Hasegawa Tohaku's Pine Trees at the Tokyo National Museum
Sumi-e Beppe Mokuza, Inc.
Sumi-e Society of America, Inc.
{{DEFAULTSORT:Ink And Wash Painting
Chinese art
Chinese painting
East Asian art
Japanese painting
Korean painting
Painting techniques
Zenga