A law degree is an academic degree conferred for studies in
law
Law is a set of rules that are created and are enforceable by social or governmental institutions to regulate behavior,Robertson, ''Crimes against humanity'', 90. with its precise definition a matter of longstanding debate. It has been vari ...
. Such degrees are generally preparation for legal careers. But while their curricula may be reviewed by legal authority, they do not confer a license themselves. A legal license is granted by examination, and exercised locally. The law degree can have local, international, and world-wide aspects, such as in England and Wales, where the
Legal Practice Course
The Legal Practice Course (LPC)also known as the Postgraduate Diploma in Legal Practiceis a postgraduate course and the final educational stage for becoming a solicitor in England, Wales and Australia (where it is commonly known as "practical ...
or passing Solicitors Qualifying Examination (SQE) is required to become a
solicitor
A solicitor is a legal practitioner who traditionally deals with most of the legal matters in some jurisdictions. A person must have legally-defined qualifications, which vary from one jurisdiction to another, to be described as a solicitor and ...
or the
Bar Professional Training Course
The Bar Professional Training Course or BPTC is a postgraduate course which allows law graduates to be named and practise as barristers in England and Wales. The eight institutes that run the BPTC along with the four prestigious Inns of Court ...
(BPTC) to become a
barrister.
History
The first academic degrees were law degrees, and the first law degrees were
doctorates. The foundations of the first universities in Europe were the
glossators
The scholars of the 11th- and 12th-century legal schools in Italy, France and Germany are identified as glossators in a specific sense. They studied Roman law based on the '' Digesta'', the ''Codex'' of Justinian, the ''Authenticum'' (an abridg ...
of the 11th century, which were schools of law. The first European university,
Bologna, was founded by four legal scholars in the 12th century. The first academic title of "doctor" applied to scholars of law. The degree and title were not applied to scholars of other disciplines until the 13th century.
The
University of Bologna served as the model for other law schools of the
medieval age. While it was common for students of law to visit and study at schools in other countries, that was not the case with England. This was because of the English rejection of
Roman law. Although the
University of Oxford and
University of Cambridge did teach
canon law
Canon law (from grc, κανών, , a 'straight measuring rod, ruler') is a set of ordinances and regulations made by ecclesiastical authority (church leadership) for the government of a Christian organization or church and its members. It is th ...
up until the
English Reformation, its importance was always superior to
civil law in those institutions.
Types of degrees
The type of law degree conferred differs according to the jurisdiction.
Austria
''
Magister iuris (Mag. iur.)'' ("Master of Law") in
Austria
Austria, , bar, Östareich officially the Republic of Austria, is a country in the southern part of Central Europe, lying in the Eastern Alps. It is a federation of nine states, one of which is the capital, Vienna, the most populous c ...
. It is a master's level degree and the first academic title within both systems. After three years of practice, students can take the "Anwaltsprüfung," an equivalent of the bar exam.
Brazil
''
Bacharel em Direito'' (Bachelor of Laws) or ''
Bacharel em Ciências Jurídicas e Sociais'' (Bachelor of Laws and Social Sciences), in
Brazil. It is an undergraduate degree. To be a lawyer and be admitted at the
Ordem dos Advogados do Brasil
The Order of Attorneys of Brazil (National Bar Association of Brazil) ( Portuguese: ''Ordem dos Advogados do Brasil'') is the Brazilian Bar Association, founded in 1930. It is an organization of lawyers and responsible for the regulation of the l ...
(Brazilian Bar Association), the Bachelor must be approved at the Brazilian Bar Exam. If the Selection and Registration Committee accept the new member, they will be considered an
Advogado (Attorney at Law/Advocate).
Canada
Canada's legal system is composed of both common law and civil law elements. As of 2019, the professional degree required to become a common law lawyer is a ''
Juris Doctor'' (J.D.). Formerly, this degree was called a
Bachelor of Laws
Bachelor of Laws ( la, Legum Baccalaureus; LL.B.) is an undergraduate law degree in the United Kingdom and most common law jurisdictions. Bachelor of Laws is also the name of the law degree awarded by universities in the People's Republic of Ch ...
(LL.B., ''Legum Baccalaureatus'' in Latin), but the name was phased out. LL.B. holders were often given the chance to convert their degrees to the new designation. Despite having the word "''Doctor''" in the name, the J.D. remains a second-entry undergraduate programme, requiring some years of undergraduate study before applicants are eligible. For
Quebec, where
provincial law
A state government is the government that controls a subdivision of a country in a federal form of government, which shares political power with the federal or national government. A state government may have some level of political autonomy, o ...
is a hybrid of French-heritage civil law for civil matters and common law for public, criminal, and federal law matters, the professional degree is often called the
Bachelor of Civil Law
Bachelor of Civil Law (abbreviated BCL, or B.C.L.; la, Baccalaureus Civilis Legis) is the name of various degrees in law conferred by English-language universities. The BCL originated as a postgraduate degree in the universities of Oxford and Camb ...
(B.C.L.) in English, and has other designations at various institutions in Quebec. Prior to getting
called to the bar
The call to the bar is a legal term of art in most common law jurisdictions where persons must be qualified to be allowed to argue in court on behalf of another party and are then said to have been "called to the bar" or to have received "call to ...
in one of Canada's provinces or territories, degree-holders must complete bar exams and articling terms (professional apprenticeships with practising lawyers) or the equivalent thereof.
For graduate academic study in law, the master's level designation is the
Master of Laws
A Master of Laws (M.L. or LL.M.; Latin: ' or ') is an advanced postgraduate academic degree, pursued by those either holding an undergraduate academic law degree, a professional law degree, or an undergraduate degree in a related subject. In mos ...
(LL.M., ''Legum Magister'' in Latin).
Doctoral-level legal research degrees vary in title by institution, but the designations include the
Doctor of Juridical Science
A Doctor of Juridical Science (SJD; ), or a Doctor of Science of Law (JSD; ), is a research doctorate in law equivalent to the more commonly awarded Doctor of Philosophy degree.
Australia
The S.J.D. is offered by the Australian National Unive ...
(S.J.D., ''Scientiae Juridicae Doctor'' in Latin), Doctor of Philosophy in Law (Ph.D., ''Philosophiae Doctor'' in Latin), or Doctor of Laws (LL.D., ''Legum Doctor'' in Latin) for common law-based doctorates and the Doctor of Civil Law (D.C.L.) for civil law-based doctorates.
The degree of Doctor of Laws (LL.D., ''Legum Doctor'' in Latin) is reserved at some universities for honorary use.
Croatia
''
Magister iuris (Mag. iur.)'' ("Master of Law") in
Croatia. It is a master's level degree and the first academic title within the system. After three years of practice, students can take the "Pravosudni ispit," an equivalent of the bar exam.
Finland
The Finnish title of ''
varatuomari Varatuomari (lit. 'vice-judge' or 'reserve judge'; Swedish: ''vicehäradshövding''), or Master of Laws with court training, is a Finnish legal title for a qualified lawyer who has been trained on the bench and is equipped to appear before a cour ...
'' is the basic qualification for the legal profession. It is obtained by a one-year
externship at a district court after completing a master's degree in law in a university.
Germany
''Erstes Juristisches
Staatsexamen'' is partially equivalent to the Bar exam, since the second part ''(Zweites Juristisches Staatsexamen),'' is the German equivalent to the
Bar exam
A bar examination is an examination administered by the bar association of a jurisdiction that a lawyer must pass in order to be admitted to the bar of that jurisdiction.
Australia
Administering bar exams is the responsibility of the bar associat ...
in the U.S. At some universities you either become a "Lizentiat des Rechts (Licentiatus iuris)", a ''Magister iuris,'' or a ''Diplom-Jurist''. It is a master's-level degree.
Italy
''
Laurea di Dottore in Giurisprudenza'' for graduates before the
Bologna Process reforms, or ''
Laurea Magistrale
In Italy, the ''laurea'' is the main post-secondary academic degree. The name originally referred literally to the laurel wreath, since ancient times a sign of honor and now worn by Italian students right after their official graduation ceremon ...
in Giurisprudenza'' after the
Bologna Process reforms (''"Juris Doctor"''), in
Italy. It is a masters level degree, however all graduates of Italian universities are authorized to use the title of "dottore" (Italian for doctor).
Mexico
''
Licenciatura
A licentiate (abbreviated Lic.) is an academic degree present in many countries, representing different educational levels.
It may be similar to a master's degree when issued by pontifical universities and other universities in Europe, Latin A ...
en Derecho'' ("Bachelor in Law") in
Mexico.
Russia
In Russia, students attend university to earn a
Specialist degree in law. A Russian law degree is graduate-level degree, which allows for PhD research after admission to the PhD department (aspirantura), though formally it is not at the master's level.
Spain
Spanish universities confer a
Bachelor's Degree in Law. At one time, students earned law degrees as a part of the five-year
Bologna Process. The modern Spanish law program consists of four years, with internship and to specialize and it has a graduate level (it is necessary to study a master's degree).
Switzerland
''
Lizentiat der Rechtswissenschaften'' (
German
German(s) may refer to:
* Germany (of or related to)
**Germania (historical use)
* Germans, citizens of Germany, people of German ancestry, or native speakers of the German language
** For citizens of Germany, see also German nationality law
**Ge ...
) / ''Licence en droit'' (
French
French (french: français(e), link=no) may refer to:
* Something of, from, or related to France
** French language, which originated in France, and its various dialects and accents
** French people, a nation and ethnic group identified with Franc ...
) until 2004 and ''Master of Law (MLaw)'' since 2004 (as a result of the
Bologna Process) in
Switzerland. It is a masters level degree.
Ukraine
Specialist in law or
Jurist in
Ukraine. It is a graduate degree which allows doing a PhD research after admission to the PhD department (aspirantura), though formally it is not at the master's level.
[Julia Pogodina and Ruslan Sadovnikov]
Legal Education and Legal Careers in Russia
. Northwestern University School of Law, Career Center. Accessed January 7, 2009.
United Kingdom and Ireland
Universities in the United Kingdom generally award a
Bachelor of Laws
Bachelor of Laws ( la, Legum Baccalaureus; LL.B.) is an undergraduate law degree in the United Kingdom and most common law jurisdictions. Bachelor of Laws is also the name of the law degree awarded by universities in the People's Republic of Ch ...
(LL.B.) for undergraduate legal studies, although some award a
Bachelor of Arts as their standard undergraduate law degree, as with the B.A. in jurisprudence at the
University of Oxford and the B.A. Tripos in Law at the
University of Cambridge. The
Bachelor of Civil Law
Bachelor of Civil Law (abbreviated BCL, or B.C.L.; la, Baccalaureus Civilis Legis) is the name of various degrees in law conferred by English-language universities. The BCL originated as a postgraduate degree in the universities of Oxford and Camb ...
(B.C.L.) degree awarded by the University of Oxford is in fact a postgraduate degree, similar to an LL.M. elsewhere.
In the Republic of Ireland, undergraduate law degrees are offered in the same fashion as in the United Kingdom. While the constituent universities of the
National University of Ireland award a
Bachelor of Civil Law
Bachelor of Civil Law (abbreviated BCL, or B.C.L.; la, Baccalaureus Civilis Legis) is the name of various degrees in law conferred by English-language universities. The BCL originated as a postgraduate degree in the universities of Oxford and Camb ...
(B.C.L.) degree as their primary undergraduate law degree, it is in fact a common law degree that is directly equivalent to an LL.B. degree elsewhere. The
Bachelor of Laws
Bachelor of Laws ( la, Legum Baccalaureus; LL.B.) is an undergraduate law degree in the United Kingdom and most common law jurisdictions. Bachelor of Laws is also the name of the law degree awarded by universities in the People's Republic of Ch ...
(LL.B.) degree is the degree generally awarded by other universities and colleges in Ireland.
Many universities also offer a
Master of Laws
A Master of Laws (M.L. or LL.M.; Latin: ' or ') is an advanced postgraduate academic degree, pursued by those either holding an undergraduate academic law degree, a professional law degree, or an undergraduate degree in a related subject. In mos ...
. Also referred to as an LL.M. from its Latin name, Legum Magister. It is an advanced academic degree pursued by those holding a professional law degree or a degree in a relevant field.
Others
''
Juris Doctor'' (J.D.) in the
United States and
Japan (also offered at some schools in
Canada, the
United Kingdom,
Australia, and
Hong Kong). It is a professional degree.
[Association of American Universities Data Exchange]
Glossary of Terms for Graduate Education
. Accessed May 26, 2008; National Science Foundation (2006).
Time to Degree of U.S. Research Doctorate Recipients
," "InfoBrief, Science Resource Statistics" NSF 06-312, 2006, p. 7. (under "Data notes" mentions that the J.D. is a professional doctorate); San Diego County Bar Association (1969)
. Accessed May 26, 2008. (under "other references" discusses differences between academic and professional doctorate, and statement that the J.D. is a professional doctorate); University of Utah (2006)
University of Utah – The Graduate School – Graduate Handbook
. Accessed May 28, 2008. (the J.D. degree is listed under doctorate degrees); German Federal Ministry of Education
"U.S. Higher Education / Evaluation of the Almanac Chronicle of Higher Education"
(in German). Accessed May 26, 2008. (report by the German Federal Ministry of Education analysing the Chronicle of Higher Education from the U.S. and stating that the J.D. is a professional doctorate); Encyclopædia Britannica. (2002). "Encyclopædia Britannica", 3:962:1a. (the J.D. is listed among other doctorate degrees).
''
Legum Doctor'' (known as the LL.D., or in some jurisdictions
Doctor of Laws) is in some jurisdictions the highest academic degree in law and is equivalent to a Ph.D., and in others is an honorary degree only.
''
Doctor of Juridical Science
A Doctor of Juridical Science (SJD; ), or a Doctor of Science of Law (JSD; ), is a research doctorate in law equivalent to the more commonly awarded Doctor of Philosophy degree.
Australia
The S.J.D. is offered by the Australian National Unive ...
'' (S.J.D.) is a research doctorate in law awarded mostly in the United States and Canada.
See also
*
Legal education
*
Admission to practice law
An admission to practice law is acquired when a lawyer receives a license to practice law. In jurisdictions with two types of lawyer, as with barristers and solicitors, barristers must gain admission to the bar whereas for solicitors there are dist ...
*
Magister Juris
References
{{Academic degrees
Legal education