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An information system (IS) is a formal, sociotechnical, organizational system designed to collect, process, store, and distribute
information Information is an abstract concept that refers to that which has the power to inform. At the most fundamental level information pertains to the interpretation of that which may be sensed. Any natural process that is not completely random, ...
. From a sociotechnical perspective, information systems are composed by four components: task, people, structure (or roles), and technology. Information systems can be defined as an integration of components for collection, storage and
processing Processing is a free graphical library and integrated development environment (IDE) built for the electronic arts, new media art, and visual design communities with the purpose of teaching non-programmers the fundamentals of computer programming ...
of
data In the pursuit of knowledge, data (; ) is a collection of discrete values that convey information, describing quantity, quality, fact, statistics, other basic units of meaning, or simply sequences of symbols that may be further interpret ...
of which the data is used to provide information, contribute to knowledge as well as digital products that facilitate decision making. A computer information system is a system that is composed of people and computers that processes or interprets information. The term is also sometimes used to simply refer to a computer system with software installed. "Information systems" is also an academic field study about systems with a specific reference to information and the complementary networks of computer hardware and
software Software is a set of computer programs and associated documentation and data. This is in contrast to hardware, from which the system is built and which actually performs the work. At the lowest programming level, executable code consist ...
that people and organizations use to collect, filter, process, create and also distribute
data In the pursuit of knowledge, data (; ) is a collection of discrete values that convey information, describing quantity, quality, fact, statistics, other basic units of meaning, or simply sequences of symbols that may be further interpret ...
. An emphasis is placed on an information system having a definitive boundary, users, processors, storage, inputs, outputs and the aforementioned communication networks. In many organizations, the department or unit responsible for information systems and data processing is known as "information services". Any specific information system aims to support operations, management and decision-making. An information system is the information and communication technology (ICT) that an organization uses, and also the way in which people interact with this technology in support of business processes. Some authors make a clear distinction between information systems, computer systems, and
business process A business process, business method or business function is a collection of related, structured activities or tasks by people or equipment in which a specific sequence produces a service or product (serves a particular business goal) for a parti ...
es. Information systems typically include an ICT component but are not purely concerned with ICT, focusing instead on the end-use of
information technology Information technology (IT) is the use of computers to create, process, store, retrieve, and exchange all kinds of data . and information. IT forms part of information and communications technology (ICT). An information technology syste ...
. Information systems are also different from business processes. Information systems help to control the performance of business processes. Alter argues for advantages of viewing an information system as a special type of work system. A work system is a system in which humans or machines perform processes and activities using resources to produce specific products or services for customers. An information system is a work system whose activities are devoted to capturing, transmitting, storing, retrieving, manipulating and displaying information. As such, information systems inter-relate with
data systems Data system is a term used to refer to an organized collection of symbols and processes that may be used to operate on such symbols. Any organised collection of symbols and symbol-manipulating operations can be considered a data system. Hence, hum ...
on the one hand and activity systems on the other. An information system is a form of
communication Communication (from la, communicare, meaning "to share" or "to be in relation with") is usually defined as the transmission of information. The term may also refer to the message communicated through such transmissions or the field of inqui ...
system in which data represent and are processed as a form of social memory. An information system can also be considered a semi-
formal language In logic, mathematics, computer science, and linguistics, a formal language consists of words whose letters are taken from an alphabet and are well-formed according to a specific set of rules. The alphabet of a formal language consists of sym ...
which supports human decision making and action. Information systems are the primary focus of study for organizational informatics.


Overview

Silver et al. (1995) provided two views on IS that includes software, hardware, data, people, and procedures. The Association for Computing Machinery defines "Information systems specialists sfocus ngon integrating
information technology Information technology (IT) is the use of computers to create, process, store, retrieve, and exchange all kinds of data . and information. IT forms part of information and communications technology (ICT). An information technology syste ...
solutions and business processes to meet the information needs of businesses and other enterprises."The Joint Task Force for Computing Curricula 2005
Computing Curricula 2005: The Overview Report (pdf)
There are various types of information systems, for example: transaction processing systems, decision support systems, knowledge management systems,
learning management system A learning management system (LMS) is a software application for the administration, documentation, tracking, reporting, automation, and delivery of educational courses, training programs, materials or learning and development programs. The lear ...
s, database management systems, and office information systems. Critical to most information systems are information technologies, which are typically designed to enable humans to perform tasks for which the human brain is not well suited, such as: handling large amounts of information, performing complex calculations, and controlling many simultaneous processes. Information technologies are a very important and malleable resource available to executives. Many companies have created a position of chief information officer (CIO) that sits on the executive board with the
chief executive officer A chief executive officer (CEO), also known as a central executive officer (CEO), chief administrator officer (CAO) or just chief executive (CE), is one of a number of corporate executives charged with the management of an organization especiall ...
(CEO), chief financial officer (CFO),
chief operating officer A chief operating officer or chief operations officer, also called a COO, is one of the highest-ranking executive positions in an organization, composing part of the " C-suite". The COO is usually the second-in-command at the firm, especially if ...
(COO), and chief technical officer (CTO). The CTO may also serve as CIO, and vice versa. The chief information security officer (CISO) focuses on information security management.


Six components

The ''six components'' that must come together in order to produce an information system are: #''Hardware'': The term hardware refers to machinery and equipment. In a modern information system, this category includes the computer itself and all of its support equipment. The support equipment includes input and output devices, storage devices and communications devices. In pre-computer information systems, the hardware might include ledger books and ink. #''Software'': The term software refers to computer programs and the manuals (if any) that support them. Computer programs are machine-readable instructions that direct the circuitry within the hardware parts of the system to function in ways that produce useful information from data. Programs are generally stored on some input/output medium, often a disk or tape. The "software" for pre-computer information systems included how the hardware was prepared for use (e.g., column headings in the ledger book) and instructions for using them (the guidebook for a card catalog). #''Data'': Data are facts that are used by systems to produce useful information. In modern information systems, data are generally stored in machine-readable form on disk or tape until the computer needs them. In pre-computer information systems, the data are generally stored in human-readable form. #''Procedures'': Procedures are the policies that govern the operation of an information system. "Procedures are to people what software is to hardware" is a common analogy that is used to illustrate the role of procedures in a system. #''People'': Every system needs people if it is to be useful. Often the most overlooked element of the system is the people, probably the component that most influence the success or failure of information systems. This includes "not only the users, but those who operate and service the computers, those who maintain the data, and those who support the network of computers". #''Internet'': The internet is a combination of data and people. (Although this component isn't necessary to function.) Data is the bridge between hardware and people. This means that the data we collect is only data until we involve people. At that point, data is now information.


Types

The "classic" view of Information systems found in textbooks in the 1980s was a pyramid of systems that reflected the hierarchy of the organization, usually
transaction processing systems Transaction processing is a way of computing that divides work into individual, indivisible operations, called transactions. A transaction processing system (TPS) is a software system, or software/ hardware combination, that supports transaction ...
at the bottom of the pyramid, followed by management information systems,
decision support systems A decision support system (DSS) is an information system that supports business or organizational decision-making activities. DSSs serve the management, operations and planning levels of an organization (usually mid and higher management) and ...
, and ending with
executive information systems An executive information system (EIS), also known as an executive support system (ESS), is a type of management support system that facilitates and supports senior executive information and decision-making needs. It provides easy access to internal ...
at the top. Although the pyramid model remains useful since it was first formulated, a number of new technologies have been developed and new categories of information systems have emerged, some of which no longer fit easily into the original pyramid model. Some examples of such systems are: * intelligent system * computing platform * data warehouses * decision support system *
enterprise systems Enterprise software, also known as enterprise application software (EAS), is computer software used to satisfy the needs of an organization rather than individual users. Such organizations include businesses, schools, interest-based user groups ...
* enterprise resource planning * expert systems * geographic information system *
global information system Global information system is an information system which is developed and / or used in a global context. Some examples of GIS are SAP, The Global Learning Objects Brokered Exchange and other systems. Definition There are a variety of definitions ...
*
management information system A management information system (MIS) is an information system used for decision-making, and for the coordination, control, analysis, and visualization of information in an organization. The study of the management information systems involves pe ...
* multimedia information system * process control system * social information systems * search engines * office automation. A computer(-based) information system is essentially an IS using computer technology to carry out some or all of its planned tasks. The basic components of computer-based information systems are: *''Hardware'' are the devices like the monitor, processor, printer, and keyboard, all of which work together to accept, process, show data, and information. *''Software'' are the programs that allow the hardware to process the data. *''Databases'' are the gathering of associated files or tables containing related data. *''Networks'' are a connecting system that allows diverse computers to distribute resources. *''Procedures'' are the commands for combining the components above to process information and produce the preferred output. The first four components (hardware, software, database, and network) make up what is known as the information technology platform. Information technology workers could then use these components to create information systems that watch over safety measures, risk and the management of data. These actions are known as information technology services. Certain information systems support parts of organizations, others support entire organizations, and still others, support groups of organizations. Each department or functional area within an organization has its own collection of application programs or information systems. These functional area information systems (FAIS) are supporting pillars for more general IS namely,
business intelligence Business intelligence (BI) comprises the strategies and technologies used by enterprises for the data analysis and management of business information. Common functions of business intelligence technologies include reporting, online analytical ...
systems and dashboards. As the name suggests, each FAIS supports a particular function within the organization, e.g.: accounting IS, finance IS, production-operation management (POM) IS, marketing IS, and human resources IS. In finance and accounting, managers use IT systems to forecast revenues and business activity, to determine the best sources and uses of funds, and to perform audits to ensure that the organization is fundamentally sound and that all financial reports and documents are accurate. Other types of organizational information systems are FAIS, transaction processing systems, enterprise resource planning, office automation system,
management information system A management information system (MIS) is an information system used for decision-making, and for the coordination, control, analysis, and visualization of information in an organization. The study of the management information systems involves pe ...
, decision support system, expert system, executive dashboard, supply chain management system, and electronic commerce system. Dashboards are a special form of IS that support all managers of the organization. They provide rapid access to timely information and direct access to structured information in the form of reports. Expert systems attempt to duplicate the work of human experts by applying reasoning capabilities, knowledge, and expertise within a specific domain.


Development

Information technology departments in larger organizations tend to strongly influence the development, use, and application of information technology in the business. A series of methodologies and processes can be used to develop and use an information system. Many developers use a systems engineering approach such as the system development life cycle (SDLC), to systematically develop an information system in stages. The stages of the system development lifecycle are planning, system analysis, and requirements, system design, development, integration and testing, implementation and operations, and maintenance. Recent research aims at enabling and measuring the ongoing, collective development of such systems within an organization by the entirety of human actors themselves. An information system can be developed in house (within the organization) or outsourced. This can be accomplished by outsourcing certain components or the entire system. A specific case is the geographical distribution of the development team ( offshoring,
global information system Global information system is an information system which is developed and / or used in a global context. Some examples of GIS are SAP, The Global Learning Objects Brokered Exchange and other systems. Definition There are a variety of definitions ...
). A computer-based information system, following a definition of Langefors, is a technologically implemented medium for recording, storing, and disseminating linguistic expressions, as well as for drawing conclusions from such expressions. Geographic information systems, land information systems, and disaster information systems are examples of emerging information systems, but they can be broadly considered as spatial information systems. System development is done in stages which include: * Problem recognition and specification * Information gathering * Requirements specification for the new system * System design * System construction * System implementation * Review and maintenance


As an academic discipline

The field of study called ''information systems'' encompasses a variety of topics including systems analysis and design, computer networking, information security, database management, and decision support systems. '' Information management'' deals with the practical and theoretical problems of collecting and analyzing information in a business function area including business productivity tools, applications programming and implementation, electronic commerce, digital media production, data mining, and decision support. ''Communications and networking'' deals with telecommunication technologies. Information systems bridges business and
computer science Computer science is the study of computation, automation, and information. Computer science spans theoretical disciplines (such as algorithms, theory of computation, information theory, and automation) to Applied science, practical discipli ...
using the theoretical foundations of
information Information is an abstract concept that refers to that which has the power to inform. At the most fundamental level information pertains to the interpretation of that which may be sensed. Any natural process that is not completely random, ...
and computation to study various business models and related
algorithm In mathematics and computer science, an algorithm () is a finite sequence of rigorous instructions, typically used to solve a class of specific problems or to perform a computation. Algorithms are used as specifications for performing ...
ic processes on building the IT systems within a computer science discipline. ''Computer information systems'' (CIS) is a field studying computers and algorithmic processes, including their principles, their software and hardware designs, their applications, and their impact on society, whereas IS emphasizes functionality over design. Several IS scholars have debated the nature and foundations of information systems which have its roots in other reference disciplines such as
computer science Computer science is the study of computation, automation, and information. Computer science spans theoretical disciplines (such as algorithms, theory of computation, information theory, and automation) to Applied science, practical discipli ...
,
engineering Engineering is the use of scientific principles to design and build machines, structures, and other items, including bridges, tunnels, roads, vehicles, and buildings. The discipline of engineering encompasses a broad range of more speciali ...
,
mathematics Mathematics is an area of knowledge that includes the topics of numbers, formulas and related structures, shapes and the spaces in which they are contained, and quantities and their changes. These topics are represented in modern mathematics ...
, management science, cybernetics, and others. Information systems also can be defined as a collection of hardware, software, data, people, and procedures that work together to produce quality information.


Related terms

Similar to computer science, other disciplines can be seen as both related and foundation disciplines of IS. The domain of study of IS involves the study of theories and practices related to the social and technological phenomena, which determine the development, use, and effects of information systems in organizations and society. But, while there may be considerable overlap of the disciplines at the boundaries, the disciplines are still differentiated by the focus, purpose, and orientation of their activities. In a broad scope, ''information systems'' is a scientific field of study that addresses the range of strategic, managerial, and operational activities involved in the gathering, processing, storing, distributing, and use of information and its associated technologies in society and organizations. The term ''information systems'' is also used to describe an organizational function that applies IS knowledge in the industry, government agencies, and not-for-profit organizations. ''Information systems'' often refers to the interaction between algorithmic processes and technology. This interaction can occur within or across organizational boundaries. An information system is a technology an organization uses and also the way in which the organizations interact with the technology and the way in which the technology works with the organization's business processes. Information systems are distinct from
information technology Information technology (IT) is the use of computers to create, process, store, retrieve, and exchange all kinds of data . and information. IT forms part of information and communications technology (ICT). An information technology syste ...
(IT) in that an information system has an information technology component that interacts with the processes' components. One problem with that approach is that it prevents the IS field from being interested in non-organizational use of ICT, such as in social networking, computer gaming, mobile personal usage, etc. A different way of differentiating the IS field from its neighbours is to ask, "Which aspects of reality are most meaningful in the IS field and other fields?"Basden, A. (2010) On Using Spheres of Meaning to Define and Dignify the IS Discipline. ''International Journal of Information Management'', 30, 13–20.
It employs the philosophy of the late Herman Dooyeweerd to differentiate distinct aspects or 'spheres of meaning'. The paper suggests that while computer science finds th
formative
aspect, of shaping, structuring, processing, of central interest, and business and organizational fields find th

an

aspects of central interest, the Information Systems field can find th

of central interest while making links with the aspects of the neighbouring disciplines.
This approach, based on philosophy, helps to define not just the focus, purpose, and orientation, but also the dignity, destiny and, responsibility of the field among other fields.


Career pathways

Information systems workers enter a number of different careers: * Information system strategy *
Management information system A management information system (MIS) is an information system used for decision-making, and for the coordination, control, analysis, and visualization of information in an organization. The study of the management information systems involves pe ...
s – A management information system (MIS) is an information system used for decision-making, and for the coordination, control, analysis, and visualization of information in an organization. * Project management – Project management is the practice of initiating, planning, executing, controlling, and closing the work of a team to achieve specific goals and meet specific success criteria at the specified time. * Enterprise architecture – A well-defined practice for conducting enterprise analysis, design, planning, and implementation, using a comprehensive approach at all times, for the successful development and execution of strategy. * IS development * IS organization * IS consulting * IS security * IS auditing There is a wide variety of career paths in the information systems discipline. "Workers with specialized technical knowledge and strong communications skills will have the best prospects. Workers with management skills and an understanding of business practices and principles will have excellent opportunities, as companies are increasingly looking to technology to drive their revenue." Information technology is important to the operation of contemporary businesses, it offers many employment opportunities. The information systems field includes the people in organizations who design and build information systems, the people who use those systems, and the people responsible for managing those systems. The demand for traditional IT staff such as programmers, business analysts, systems analysts, and designer is significant. Many well-paid jobs exist in areas of Information technology. At the top of the list is the chief information officer (CIO). The CIO is the executive who is in charge of the IS function. In most organizations, the CIO works with the chief executive officer (CEO), the chief financial officer (CFO), and other senior executives. Therefore, he or she actively participates in the organization's strategic planning process.


Research

Information systems research is generally interdisciplinary concerned with the study of the effects of information systems on the behaviour of individuals, groups, and organizations. Hevner et al. (2004) categorized research in IS into two scientific paradigms including ''behavioural science'' which is to develop and verify theories that explain or predict human or organizational behavior and'' design science'' which extends the boundaries of human and organizational capabilities by creating new and innovative artifacts. Salvatore March and Gerald Smith proposed a framework for researching different aspects of information technology including outputs of the research (research outputs) and activities to carry out this research (research activities). They identified research outputs as follows: # ''Constructs'' which are concepts that form the vocabulary of a domain. They constitute a
conceptualization In information science a conceptualization is an abstract simplified view of some selected part of the world, containing the objects, concepts, and other entities that are presumed of interest for some particular purpose and the relationships betw ...
used to describe problems within the domain and to specify their solutions. # A ''model'' which is a set of propositions or statements expressing relationships among constructs. # A ''method'' which is a set of steps (an
algorithm In mathematics and computer science, an algorithm () is a finite sequence of rigorous instructions, typically used to solve a class of specific problems or to perform a computation. Algorithms are used as specifications for performing ...
or guideline) used to perform a task. Methods are based on a set of underlying constructs and a representation (model) of the solution space. # An ''instantiation'' is the realization of an artefact in its environment. Also research activities including: # ''Build'' an artefact to perform a specific task. # ''Evaluate'' the artefact to determine if any progress has been achieved. # Given an artefact whose performance has been evaluated, it is important to determine why and how the artefact worked or did not work within its environment. Therefore, ''theorize'' and ''justify'' theories about IT artefacts. Although Information Systems as a discipline has been evolving for over 30 years now, the core focus or identity of IS research is still subject to debate among scholars. There are two main views around this debate: a narrow view focusing on the IT artifact as the core subject matter of IS research, and a broad view that focuses on the interplay between social and technical aspects of IT that is embedded into a dynamic evolving context. A third view calls on IS scholars to pay balanced attention to both the IT artifact and its context. Since the study of information systems is an applied field, industry practitioners expect information systems research to generate findings that are immediately applicable in practice. This is not always the case however, as information systems researchers often explore behavioral issues in much more depth than practitioners would expect them to do. This may render information systems research results difficult to understand, and has led to criticism. In the last ten years, the business trend is represented by the considerable increase of Information Systems Function (ISF) role, especially with regard to the enterprise strategies and operations supporting. It became a key factor to increase productivity and to support value creation. To study an information system itself, rather than its effects, information systems models are used, such as EATPUT. The international body of Information Systems researchers, the Association for Information Systems (AIS), and its Senior Scholars Forum Subcommittee on Journals (23 April 2007), proposed a 'basket' of journals that the AIS deems as 'excellent', and nominated: '' Management Information Systems Quarterly'' (MISQ), ''
Information Systems Research ''Information Systems Research'' is a quarterly peer-reviewed academic journal that covers research in the areas of information systems and information technology, including cognitive psychology, economics, computer science, operations resea ...
'' (ISR), '' Journal of the Association for Information Systems'' (JAIS), '' Journal of Management Information Systems'' (JMIS), ''
European Journal of Information Systems European, or Europeans, or Europeneans, may refer to: In general * ''European'', an adjective referring to something of, from, or related to Europe ** Ethnic groups in Europe ** Demographics of Europe ** European cuisine, the cuisines of Europe ...
'' (EJIS), and '' Information Systems Journal'' (ISJ). A number of annual
information systems conferences Information is an abstract concept that refers to that which has the power to inform. At the most fundamental level information pertains to the interpretation of that which may be sensed. Any natural process that is not completely random ...
are run in various parts of the world, the majority of which are peer reviewed. The AIS directly runs the
International Conference on Information Systems International Conference on Information Systems (ICIS) is an annual international conference for academics and research-oriented practitioners in the area of information systems. Previously known as the Conference on Information Systems (CIS), ICI ...
(ICIS) and the
Americas Conference on Information Systems The Americas Conference on Information Systems (AMCIS) is an annual conference for information systems and information technology academics and professionals sponsored by the Association for Information Systems. AMCIS is widely considered to be o ...
(AMCIS), while AIS affiliated conferences include the
Pacific Asia Conference on Information Systems The Pacific Asia Conference on Information Systems (PACIS) is an annual conference for Information Systems and Information Technology academics and professionals and is affiliated with the Association for Information Systems. Its purpose is to pr ...
(PACIS), European Conference on Information Systems (ECIS), the Mediterranean Conference on Information Systems (MCIS), the International Conference on Information Resources Management (Conf-IRM) and the Wuhan International Conference on E-Business (WHICEB). AIS chapter conferences include
Australasian Conference on Information Systems The Australasian Conference on Information Systems (ACIS) is an annual conference for Information Systems and Information Technology academics and professionals and is affiliated with thAustralasian Association for Information Systems ACIS is t ...
(ACIS), Information Systems Research Conference in Scandinavia (IRIS), Information Systems International Conference (ISICO), Conference of the Italian Chapter of AIS (itAIS), Annual Mid-Western AIS Conference (MWAIS) and Annual Conference of the Southern AIS (SAIS). EDSIG, which is the special interest group on education of the AITP, organizes the Conference on Information Systems and Computing Education and the Conference on Information Systems Applied Research which are both held annually in November.


See also

; Related studies * Information management *
Computer science Computer science is the study of computation, automation, and information. Computer science spans theoretical disciplines (such as algorithms, theory of computation, information theory, and automation) to Applied science, practical discipli ...
* Human–computer interaction * Informatics ** Bioinformatics ** Health informatics ** Business informatics ** Cheminformatics **
Disaster informatics Disaster Informatics or crisis informatics is the study of the use of information and technology in the preparation, mitigation, response and recovery phases of disasters and other emergencies. It began to emerge as a field after the successful use ...
** Geoinformatics *
Information science Information science (also known as information studies) is an academic field which is primarily concerned with analysis, collection, classification, manipulation, storage, retrieval, movement, dissemination, and protection of information. ...
* Web sciences *
Management information system A management information system (MIS) is an information system used for decision-making, and for the coordination, control, analysis, and visualization of information in an organization. The study of the management information systems involves pe ...
(MIS) *
Formative context Formative contexts are the institutional and imaginative arrangements that shape a society's conflicts and resolutions. They are the structures that limit both the practice and the imaginative possibilities in a socio-political order, and in doing s ...
* Data processing *
Library science Library science (often termed library studies, bibliothecography, and library economy) is an interdisciplinary or multidisciplinary field that applies the practices, perspectives, and tools of management, information technology, education, an ...
; Components * Data architect * Data modeling * Data processing system * Data Reference Model *
Database In computing, a database is an organized collection of data stored and accessed electronically. Small databases can be stored on a file system, while large databases are hosted on computer clusters or cloud storage. The design of databases ...
* EATPUT * Metadata *
Predictive Model Markup Language The Predictive Model Markup Language (PMML) is an XML-based predictive model interchange format conceived by Dr. Robert Lee Grossman, then the director of the National Center for Data Mining at the University of Illinois at Chicago. PMML prov ...
* Semantic translation * Three schema approach ; Implementation *
Enterprise information system An Enterprise Information System (EIS) is any kind of information system which improves the functions of enterprise business processes by integration. This means typically offering high quality of service, dealing with large volumes of data and c ...
*
Environmental Modeling Center The Environmental Modeling Center (EMC) is a United States Government agency, which improves numerical weather, marine and climate predictions at the National Centers for Environmental Prediction (NCEP), through a broad program of research in d ...
* Information processing system *
INFORMS The Institute for Operations Research and the Management Sciences (INFORMS) is an international society for practitioners in the fields of operations research (O.R.), management science, and analytics. It was established in 1995 with the merger ...


References


Further reading

* Rainer, R. Kelly and Cegielski, Casey G. (2009)
"Introduction to Information Systems: Enabling and Transforming Business, 3rd Edition"
* Kroenke, David (2008)
''Using MIS – 2nd Edition''
* Lindsay, John (2000)

Kingston University, School of Information Systems * Dostal, J
School information systems (Skolni informacni systemy).
In Infotech 2007 – modern information and communication technology in education. Olomouc, EU: Votobia, 2007. s. 540 – 546. . * O'Leary, Timothy and Linda. (2008). ''Computing Essentials Introductory 2008.'' McGraw-Hill o
Computing2008.com
* Imperial College London – Information Systems Engineering degree �
''Information Systems Engineering''
* Sage, S.M. "Information Systems: A brief look into history", Datamation, 63–69, Nov. 1968. – Overview of the early history of IS.


External links


Association for Information Systems (AIS)IS History website by AISCenter for Information Systems Research – Massachusetts Institute of TechnologyEuropean Research Center for Information Systems
{{DEFAULTSORT:Information Systems Information Conceptual systems