Implicational hierarchy, in
linguistics
Linguistics is the scientific study of human language. It is called a scientific study because it entails a comprehensive, systematic, objective, and precise analysis of all aspects of language, particularly its nature and structure. Ling ...
, is a chain of implicational
universals
In metaphysics, a universal is what particular things have in common, namely characteristics or qualities. In other words, universals are repeatable or recurrent entities that can be instantiated or exemplified by many particular things. For exa ...
. A set of chained universals is schematically shown as in (1):
(1) A < B < C < D
It can be reformulated in the following way: If a language has property D, then it also has properties A, B, and C; if a language has a property C, then it also has properties A and B, etc. In other words, the implicational hierarchy defines the possible combinations of properties A, B, C, and D as listed in matrix (2):
Implicational hierarchies are a useful tool in capturing linguistic generalizations
pertaining the different components of the language. They are found in all subfields of grammar.
Phonology
(3) is an example of an implicational hierarchy concerning the distribution of nasal phonemes across languages, which concerns dental/alveolar, bilabial, and palatal voiced nasals,
respectively:
(3) < <
This hierarchy defines the following possible combinations of dental/alveolar, bilabial, and palatal voiced nasals in
the phoneme inventory of a language:
(4)
In other words, the hierarchy implies that there are no languages with but without and , or with and but without .
Morphology
Number
A number is a mathematical object used to count, measure, and label. The original examples are the natural numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, and so forth. Numbers can be represented in language with number words. More universally, individual number ...
marking provides an example of implicational hierarchies in morphology.
(5) Number: singular < plural < dual < trial / paucal
On the one hand, the hierarchy implies that no language distinguishes a trial unless having a dual, and no language has dual without a plural. On the other hand, the hierarchy provides implications for the morphological marking: if the plural is coded with a certain number of morphemes, then the dual is coded with at least as many morphemes.
Syntax
Implicational hierarchies also play a role in syntactic phenomena. For instance, in some languages (e.g.
Tangut) the transitive verb agrees not with a subject, or the object, but with the syntactic argument which is higher on the person hierarchy.
(5) Person: first < second < third
See also:
animacy
Animacy (antonym: inanimacy) is a grammatical and semantic feature, existing in some languages, expressing how sentient or alive the referent of a noun is. Widely expressed, animacy is one of the most elementary principles in languages around ...
.
Bibliography
* Comrie, B. (1989). ''Language universals and linguistic typology: Syntax and morphology.'' Oxford: Blackwell, 2nd edn.
* Croft, W. (1990). ''Typology and universals''. Cambridge: Cambridge UP.
* Whaley, L.J. (1997). ''Introduction to typology: The unity and diversity of language.'' Newbury Park: Sage.
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Linguistic typology