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Human–computer interaction (HCI) is research in the design and the use of
computer technology Computing is any goal-oriented activity requiring, benefiting from, or creating computing machinery. It includes the study and experimentation of algorithmic processes, and development of both hardware and software. Computing has scientific, ...
, which focuses on the interfaces between people (
users Ancient Egyptian roles * User (ancient Egyptian official), an ancient Egyptian nomarch (governor) of the Eighth Dynasty * Useramen, an ancient Egyptian vizier also called "User" Other uses * User (computing), a person (or software) using an ...
) and
computer A computer is a machine that can be programmed to carry out sequences of arithmetic or logical operations ( computation) automatically. Modern digital electronic computers can perform generic sets of operations known as programs. These prog ...
s. HCI researchers observe the ways humans interact with computers and design technologies that allow humans to interact with computers in novel ways. A device that allows interaction between human being and a computer is known as a "Human-computer Interface (HCI)". As a field of research, human–computer interaction is situated at the intersection of
computer science Computer science is the study of computation, automation, and information. Computer science spans theoretical disciplines (such as algorithms, theory of computation, information theory, and automation) to Applied science, practical discipli ...
,
behavioral sciences Behavioral sciences explore the cognitive processes within organisms and the behavioral interactions between organisms in the natural world. It involves the systematic analysis and investigation of human and animal behavior through naturalistic ...
,
design A design is a plan or specification for the construction of an object or system or for the implementation of an activity or process or the result of that plan or specification in the form of a prototype, product, or process. The verb ''to design' ...
,
media studies Media studies is a discipline and field of study that deals with the content, history, and effects of various media; in particular, the mass media. Media Studies may draw on traditions from both the social sciences and the humanities, but mostl ...
, and several other fields of study. The term was popularized by
Stuart K. Card Stuart K. Card (born December 21, 1943), an American researcher and retired senior research fellow at Xerox PARC, is considered to be one of the pioneers of applying human factors in human–computer interaction. With Jock D. Mackinlay, George G. ...
,
Allen Newell Allen Newell (March 19, 1927 – July 19, 1992) was a researcher in computer science and cognitive psychology at the RAND Corporation and at Carnegie Mellon University’s School of Computer Science, Tepper School of Business, and Depart ...
, and Thomas P. Moran in their 1983 book, ''The Psychology of Human–Computer Interaction.'' The first known use was in 1975 by Carlisle. The term is intended to convey that, unlike other tools with specific and limited uses, computers have many uses which often involve an open-ended dialogue between the user and the computer. The notion of dialogue likens human–computer interaction to human-to-human interaction: an analogy that is crucial to theoretical considerations in the field.


Introduction

Humans interact with computers in many ways, and the interface between the two is crucial to facilitating this interaction. HCI is also sometimes termed ''human–machine interaction'' (HMI), ''man-machine interaction'' (MMI) or ''computer-human interaction'' (CHI). Desktop applications, internet browsers, handheld computers, and computer kiosks make use of the prevalent
graphical user interface The GUI ( "UI" by itself is still usually pronounced . or ), graphical user interface, is a form of user interface that allows users to interact with electronic devices through graphical icons and audio indicator such as primary notation, ins ...
s (GUI) of today. Voice user interfaces (VUI) are used for
speech recognition Speech recognition is an interdisciplinary subfield of computer science and computational linguistics that develops methodologies and technologies that enable the recognition and translation of spoken language into text by computers with the ...
and synthesizing systems, and the emerging multi-modal and Graphical user interfaces (GUI) allow humans to engage with embodied character agents in a way that cannot be achieved with other interface paradigms. The growth in human–computer interaction field has led to an increase in the quality of interaction, and resulted in many new areas of research beyond. Instead of designing regular interfaces, the different research branches focus on the concepts of multimodality over unimodality, intelligent adaptive interfaces over command/action based ones, and active interfaces over passive interfaces. The
Association for Computing Machinery The Association for Computing Machinery (ACM) is a US-based international learned society for computing. It was founded in 1947 and is the world's largest scientific and educational computing society. The ACM is a non-profit professional member ...
(ACM) defines human–computer interaction as "a discipline that is concerned with the design, evaluation, and implementation of interactive computing systems for human use and with the study of major phenomena surrounding them". An important facet of HCI is user satisfaction (or End-User Computing Satisfaction). It goes on to say: "Because human–computer interaction studies a human and a machine in communication, it draws from supporting knowledge on both the machine and the human side. On the machine side, techniques in
computer graphics Computer graphics deals with generating images with the aid of computers. Today, computer graphics is a core technology in digital photography, film, video games, cell phone and computer displays, and many specialized applications. A great de ...
,
operating system An operating system (OS) is system software that manages computer hardware, software resources, and provides common daemon (computing), services for computer programs. Time-sharing operating systems scheduler (computing), schedule tasks for ef ...
s,
programming language A programming language is a system of notation for writing computer programs. Most programming languages are text-based formal languages, but they may also be graphical. They are a kind of computer language. The description of a programming ...
s, and development environments are relevant. On the human side,
communication theory Communication theory is a proposed description of communication phenomena, the relationships among them, a storyline describing these relationships, and an argument for these three elements. Communication theory provides a way of talking about a ...
, graphic and
industrial design Industrial design is a process of design applied to physical products that are to be manufactured by mass production. It is the creative act of determining and defining a product's form and features, which takes place in advance of the manufactu ...
disciplines,
linguistics Linguistics is the scientific study of human language. It is called a scientific study because it entails a comprehensive, systematic, objective, and precise analysis of all aspects of language, particularly its nature and structure. Ling ...
,
social science Social science is one of the branches of science, devoted to the study of societies and the relationships among individuals within those societies. The term was formerly used to refer to the field of sociology, the original "science of s ...
s,
cognitive psychology Cognitive psychology is the scientific study of mental processes such as attention, language use, memory, perception, problem solving, creativity, and reasoning. Cognitive psychology originated in the 1960s in a break from behaviorism, which ...
,
social psychology Social psychology is the scientific study of how thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are influenced by the real or imagined presence of other people or by social norms. Social psychologists typically explain human behavior as a result of the ...
, and human factors such as
computer user satisfaction Computer user satisfaction (and closely related concepts such as ''system satisfaction'', ''user satisfaction'', ''computer system satisfaction'', '' end user computing satisfaction'') is the attitude of a user to the computer system they employ in ...
are relevant. And, of course, engineering and design methods are relevant." Due to the multidisciplinary nature of HCI, people with different backgrounds contribute to its success. Poorly designed human-machine interfaces can lead to many unexpected problems. A classic example is the
Three Mile Island accident The Three Mile Island accident was a partial meltdown of the Three Mile Island, Unit 2 (TMI-2) reactor in Pennsylvania, United States. It began at 4 a.m. on March 28, 1979. It is the most significant accident in U.S. commercial nuclea ...
, a nuclear meltdown accident, where investigations concluded that the design of the human-machine interface was at least partly responsible for the disaster. Similarly, accidents in aviation have resulted from manufacturers' decisions to use non-standard flight instruments or throttle quadrant layouts: even though the new designs were proposed to be superior in basic human-machine interaction, pilots had already ingrained the "standard" layout. Thus, the conceptually good idea had unintended results.


Human–computer interface

The human–computer interface can be described as the point of communication between the human user and the computer. The flow of information between the human and computer is defined as the ''loop of interaction''. The loop of interaction has several aspects to it, including: * Visual Based: The visual-based human–computer interaction is probably the most widespread human–computer interaction (HCI) research area. * Audio Based: The audio-based interaction between a computer and a human is another important area of HCI systems. This area deals with information acquired by different audio signals. * ''Task environment'': The conditions and goals set upon the user. * ''Machine environment'': The computer's environment is connected to, e.g., a laptop in a college student's dorm room. * ''Areas of the interface'': Non-overlapping areas involve the processes related to humans and computers themselves, while the overlapping areas only involve the processes related to their interaction. * ''Input flow'': The flow of information begins in the task environment when the user has some task requiring using their computer. * ''Output'': The flow of information that originates in the machine environment. * ''Feedback'': Loops through the interface that evaluate, moderate, and confirm processes as they pass from the human through the interface to the computer and back. * ''Fit'': This matches the computer design, the user, and the task to optimize the human resources needed to accomplish the task.


Goals for computers

Human–computer interaction studies the ways in which humans make—or do not make—use of computational artifacts, systems, and infrastructures. Much of the research in this field seeks to ''improve'' the human–computer interaction by improving the ''usability'' of computer interfaces. How usability is to be precisely understood, how it relates to other social and cultural values, and when it is, and when it may not be a desirable property of computer interfaces is increasingly debated. Much of the research in the field of human–computer interaction takes an interest in: * Methods for designing new computer interfaces, thereby optimizing a design for a desired property such as learnability, findability, the efficiency of use. * Methods for implementing interfaces, e.g., by means of software libraries. * Methods for evaluating and comparing interfaces with respect to their usability and other desirable properties. * Methods for studying human–computer use and its sociocultural implications more broadly. * Methods for determining whether or not the user is human or computer. * Models and theories of human–computer use as well as conceptual frameworks for the design of computer interfaces, such as cognitivist user models, Activity Theory, or ethnomethodological accounts of human–computer use. * Perspectives that critically reflect upon the values that underlie computational design, computer use, and HCI research practice. Visions of what researchers in the field seek to achieve might vary. When pursuing a cognitivist perspective, researchers of HCI may seek to align computer interfaces with the mental model that humans have of their activities. When pursuing a
post-cognitivist Movements in cognitive science are considered to be post-cognitivist if they are opposed to or move beyond the cognitivist theories posited by Noam Chomsky, Jerry Fodor, David Marr, and others. Postcognitivists challenge tenets within cognitivi ...
perspective, researchers of HCI may seek to align computer interfaces with existing social practices or existing sociocultural values. Researchers in HCI are interested in developing design methodologies, experimenting with devices, prototyping software and hardware systems, exploring interaction paradigms, and developing models and theories of interaction.


Design


Principles

The following experimental design principles are considered, when evaluating a current
user interface In the industrial design field of human–computer interaction, a user interface (UI) is the space where interactions between humans and machines occur. The goal of this interaction is to allow effective operation and control of the machine f ...
, or designing a new user interface: * Early focus is placed on the user(s) and task(s): How many users are needed to perform the task(s) is established and who the appropriate users should be is determined (someone who has never used the interface, and will not use the interface in the future, is most likely not a valid user). In addition, the task(s) the users will be performing and how often the task(s) need to be performed is defined. *
Empirical Empirical evidence for a proposition is evidence, i.e. what supports or counters this proposition, that is constituted by or accessible to sense experience or experimental procedure. Empirical evidence is of central importance to the sciences and ...
measurement: the interface is tested with real users who come in contact with the interface daily. The results can vary with the performance level of the user and the typical human–computer interaction may not always be represented. Quantitative usability specifics, such as the number of users performing the task(s), the time to complete the task(s), and the number of errors made during the task(s) are determined. *
Iterative design Iterative design is a design methodology based on a cyclic process of prototyping, testing, analyzing, and refining a product or process. Based on the results of testing the most recent iteration of a design, changes and refinements are made. ...
: After determining what users, tasks, and empirical measurements to include, the following iterative design steps are performed: *# Design the user interface *# Test *# Analyze results *# Repeat The iterative design process is repeated until a sensible, user-friendly interface is created.


Methodologies

Various strategies delineating methods for human–PC
interaction design Interaction design, often abbreviated as IxD, is "the practice of designing interactive digital products, environments, systems, and services." Beyond the digital aspect, interaction design is also useful when creating physical (non-digital) produ ...
have developed since the conception of the field during the 1980s. Most plan philosophies come from a model for how clients, originators, and specialized frameworks interface. Early techniques treated clients' psychological procedures as unsurprising and quantifiable and urged plan specialists to look at subjective science to establish zones, (for example, memory and consideration) when structuring UIs. Present-day models, in general, center around a steady input and discussion between clients, creators, and specialists and push for specialized frameworks to be folded with the sorts of encounters clients need to have, as opposed to wrapping user experience around a finished framework. * Activity theory: utilized in HCI to characterize and consider the setting where human cooperations with PCs occur. Action hypothesis gives a structure for reasoning about activities in these specific circumstances and illuminates the design of interactions from an action-driven perspective. * User-centered design (UCD): a cutting-edge, broadly-rehearsed plan theory established on the possibility that clients must become the overwhelming focus in the plan of any PC framework. Clients, architects, and specialized experts cooperate to determine the requirements and restrictions of the client and make a framework to support these components. Frequently, client-focused plans are informed by ethnographic investigations of situations in which clients will associate with the framework. This training is like
participatory design Participatory design (originally co-operative design, now often co-design) is an approach to design attempting to actively involve all stakeholders (e.g. employees, partners, customers, citizens, end users) in the design process to help ensure t ...
, which underscores the likelihood for end-clients to contribute effectively through shared plan sessions and workshops. * Principles of UI design: these standards may be considered during the design of a client interface: resistance, effortlessness, permeability, affordance, consistency, structure, and feedback. * Value sensitive design (VSD): a technique for building innovation that accounts for the individuals who utilize the design straightforwardly, and just as well for those who the design influences, either directly or indirectly. VSD utilizes an iterative plan process that includes three kinds of examinations: theoretical, exact, and specialized. Applied examinations target the understanding and articulation of the different parts of the design, and its qualities or any clashes that may emerge for the users of the design. Exact examinations are subjective or quantitative plans to explore things used to advise the creators' understanding regarding the clients' qualities, needs, and practices. Specialized examinations can include either investigation of how individuals use related advances or the framework plans.


Display designs

Displays are human-made artifacts designed to support the perception of relevant system variables and facilitate further processing of that information. Before a display is designed, the task that the display is intended to support must be defined (e.g., navigating, controlling, decision making, learning, entertaining, etc.). A user or operator must be able to process whatever information a system generates and displays; therefore, the information must be displayed according to principles to support perception, situation awareness, and understanding.


Thirteen principles of display design

Christopher Wickens et al. defined 13 principles of display design in their book ''An Introduction to Human Factors Engineering''. These principles of human perception and information processing can be utilized to create an effective display design. A reduction in errors, a reduction in required training time, an increase in efficiency, and an increase in user satisfaction are a few of the many potential benefits that can be achieved by utilizing these principles. Certain principles may not apply to different displays or situations. Some principles may also appear to be conflicting, and there is no simple solution to say that one principle is more important than another. The principles may be tailored to a specific design or situation. Striking a functional balance among the principles is critical for an effective design.


Perceptual principles

''1. Make displays legible (or audible)''. A display's legibility is critical and necessary for designing a usable display. If the characters or objects being displayed cannot be discernible, the operator cannot effectively use them. ''2. Avoid absolute judgment limits''. Do not ask the user to determine the level of a variable based on a single sensory variable (e.g., color, size, loudness). These sensory variables can contain many possible levels. ''3. Top-down processing''. Signals are likely perceived and interpreted by what is expected based on a user's experience. If a signal is presented contrary to the user's expectation, more physical evidence of that signal may need to be presented to assure that it is understood correctly. ''4. Redundancy gain''. If a signal is presented more than once, it is more likely to be understood correctly. This can be done by presenting the signal in alternative physical forms (e.g., color and shape, voice and print, etc.), as redundancy does not imply repetition. A traffic light is a good example of redundancy, as color and position are redundant. ''5. Similarity causes confusion: Use distinguishable elements''. Signals that appear to be similar will likely be confused. The ratio of similar features to different features causes signals to be similar. For example, A423B9 is more similar to A423B8 than 92 is to 93. Unnecessarily similar features should be removed, and dissimilar features should be highlighted.


Mental model principles

''6. Principle of pictorial realism''. A display should look like the variable that it represents (e.g., the high temperature on a thermometer shown as a higher vertical level). If there are multiple elements, they can be configured in a manner that looks like they would in the represented environment. ''7. Principle of the moving part''. Moving elements should move in a pattern and direction compatible with the user's mental model of how it actually moves in the system. For example, the moving element on an altimeter should move upward with increasing altitude.


Principles based on attention

''8. Minimizing information access cost'' or
interaction cost Interaction cost can comprise work, costs, and other expenses, required to complete a task or interaction. This applies to several categories, including: * Economy: the interaction cost of a purchase includes the requirements to complete it, and dif ...
. When the user's attention is diverted from one location to another to access necessary information, there is an associated cost in time or effort. A display design should minimize this cost by allowing frequently accessed sources to be located at the nearest possible position. However, adequate legibility should not be sacrificed to reduce this cost. ''9. Proximity compatibility principle''. Divided attention between two information sources may be necessary for the completion of one task. These sources must be mentally integrated and are defined to have close mental proximity. Information access costs should be low, which can be achieved in many ways (e.g., proximity, linkage by common colors, patterns, shapes, etc.). However, close display proximity can be harmful by causing too much clutter. ''10. Principle of multiple resources''. A user can more easily process information across different resources. For example, visual and auditory information can be presented simultaneously rather than presenting all visual or all auditory information.


Memory principles

''11. Replace memory with visual information: knowledge in the world''. A user should not need to retain important information solely in working memory or retrieve it from long-term memory. A menu, checklist, or another display can aid the user by easing the use of their memory. However, memory use may sometimes benefit the user by eliminating the need to reference some knowledge globally (e.g., an expert computer operator would rather use direct commands from memory than refer to a manual). The use of knowledge in a user's head and knowledge in the world must be balanced for an effective design. ''12. Principle of predictive aiding''. Proactive actions are usually more effective than reactive actions. A display should eliminate resource-demanding cognitive tasks and replace them with simpler perceptual tasks to reduce the user's mental resources. This will allow the user to focus on current conditions and to consider possible future conditions. An example of a predictive aid is a road sign displaying the distance to a certain destination. ''13. Principle of consistency''. Old habits from other displays will easily transfer to support the processing of new displays if they are designed consistently. A user's long-term memory will trigger actions that are expected to be appropriate. A design must accept this fact and utilize consistency among different displays.


Current research

Topics in human–computer interaction include the following:


Social computing

Social computing is an interactive and collaborative behavior considered between technology and people. In recent years, there has been an explosion of social science research focusing on interactions as the unit of analysis, as there are a lot of social computing technologies that include blogs, emails, social networking, quick messaging, and various others. Much of this research draws from psychology, social psychology, and sociology. For example, one study found out that people expected a computer with a man's name to cost more than a machine with a woman's name. Other research finds that individuals perceive their interactions with computers more negatively than humans, despite behaving the same way towards these machines.


Knowledge-driven human–computer interaction

In human and computer interactions, a semantic gap usually exists between human and computer's understandings towards mutual behaviors.
Ontology In metaphysics, ontology is the philosophy, philosophical study of being, as well as related concepts such as existence, Becoming (philosophy), becoming, and reality. Ontology addresses questions like how entities are grouped into Category ...
, as a formal representation of domain-specific knowledge, can be used to address this problem by solving the semantic ambiguities between the two parties.


Emotions and human–computer interaction

In the interaction of humans and computers, research has studied how computers can detect, process, and react to human emotions to develop emotionally intelligent information systems. Researchers have suggested several 'affect-detection channels'. The potential of telling human emotions in an automated and digital fashion lies in improvements to the effectiveness of human–computer interaction. The influence of emotions in human–computer interaction has been studied in fields such as financial decision-making using ECG and organizational knowledge sharing using
eye-tracking Eye tracking is the process of measuring either the point of gaze (where one is looking) or the motion of an eye relative to the head. An eye tracker is a device for measuring eye positions and eye movement. Eye trackers are used in research ...
and face readers as affect-detection channels. In these fields, it has been shown that affect-detection channels have the potential to detect human emotions and those information systems can incorporate the data obtained from affect-detection channels to improve decision models.


Brain–computer interfaces

A brain–computer interface (BCI), is a direct communication pathway between an enhanced or wired
brain A brain is an organ (biology), organ that serves as the center of the nervous system in all vertebrate and most invertebrate animals. It is located in the head, usually close to the sensory organs for senses such as Visual perception, vision. I ...
and an external device. BCI differs from neuromodulation in that it allows for bidirectional information flow. BCIs are often directed at researching, mapping, assisting, augmenting, or repairing human cognitive or sensory-motor functions.


Security interactions

Security interactions are the study of interaction between humans and computers specifically as it pertains to
information security Information security, sometimes shortened to InfoSec, is the practice of protecting information by mitigating information risks. It is part of Risk management information systems, information risk management. It typically involves preventing or re ...
. Its aim, in plain terms, is to improve the usability of security features in
end user In product development, an end user (sometimes end-user) is a person who ultimately uses or is intended to ultimately use a product. The end user stands in contrast to users who support or maintain the product, such as sysops, system administrato ...
applications. Unlike HCI, which has roots in the early days of
Xerox PARC PARC (Palo Alto Research Center; formerly Xerox PARC) is a research and development company in Palo Alto, California. Founded in 1969 by Jacob E. "Jack" Goldman, chief scientist of Xerox Corporation, the company was originally a division of Xero ...
during the 1970s, HCISec is a nascent field of study by comparison. Interest in this topic tracks with that of Internet security, which has become an area of broad public concern only in very recent years. When security features exhibit poor usability, the following are common reasons: * they were added in casual afterthought * they were hastily patched in to address newly discovered security bugs * they address very complex
use case In software and systems engineering, the phrase use case is a polyseme with two senses: # A usage scenario for a piece of software; often used in the plural to suggest situations where a piece of software may be useful. # A potential scenario ...
s without the benefit of a software wizard * their interface designers lacked understanding of related security concepts * their interface designers were not usability experts (often meaning they were the application developers themselves)


Factors of change

Traditionally, computer use was modeled as a human–computer dyad in which the two were connected by a narrow explicit communication channel, such as text-based terminals. Much work has been done to make the interaction between a computing system and a human more reflective of the multidimensional nature of everyday communication. Because of potential issues, human–computer interaction shifted focus beyond the interface to respond to observations as articulated by D. Engelbart: "If ease of use were the only valid criterion, people would stick to tricycles and never try bicycles." How humans interact with computers continues to evolve rapidly. Human–computer interaction is affected by developments in computing. These forces include: * Decreasing hardware costs leading to larger memory and faster systems * Miniaturization of hardware leading to portability * Reduction in power requirements leading to portability * New display technologies leading to the packaging of computational devices in new forms * Specialized hardware leading to new functions * Increased development of network communication and distributed computing * Increasingly widespread use of computers, especially by people who are outside of the computing profession * Increasing innovation in input techniques (e.g., voice,
gesture A gesture is a form of non-verbal communication or non-vocal communication in which visible bodily actions communicate particular messages, either in place of, or in conjunction with, speech. Gestures include movement of the hands, face, or ...
, pen), combined with lowering cost, leading to rapid computerization by people formerly left out of the ''computer revolution''. * Wider social concerns leading to improved access to computers by currently disadvantaged groups the future for HCI is expected to include the following characteristics: * ''
Ubiquitous computing Ubiquitous computing (or "ubicomp") is a concept in software engineering, hardware engineering and computer science where computing is made to appear anytime and everywhere. In contrast to desktop computing, ubiquitous computing can occur using ...
and communication''. Computers are expected to communicate through high-speed local networks, nationally over wide-area networks, and portably via infrared, ultrasonic, cellular, and other technologies. Data and computational services will be portably accessible from many if not most locations to which a user travels. * ''high-functionality systems''. Systems can have large numbers of functions associated with them. There are so many systems that most users, technical or non-technical, do not have time to learn about traditionally (e.g., through thick user manuals). * ''The mass availability of computer graphics''. Computer graphics capabilities such as image processing, graphics transformations, rendering, and interactive animation become widespread as inexpensive chips become available for inclusion in general workstations and mobile devices. * ''Mixed media''. Commercial systems can handle images, voice, sounds, video, text, formatted data. These are exchangeable over communication links among users. The separate consumer electronics fields (e.g., stereo sets, DVD players, televisions) and computers are beginning to merge. Computer and print fields are expected to cross-assimilate. * ''High- bandwidth interaction''. The rate at which humans and machines interact is expected to increase substantially due to the changes in speed, computer graphics, new media, and new input/output devices. This can lead to qualitatively different interfaces, such as
virtual reality Virtual reality (VR) is a simulated experience that employs pose tracking and 3D near-eye displays to give the user an immersive feel of a virtual world. Applications of virtual reality include entertainment (particularly video games), edu ...
or computational video. * ''Large and thin displays''. New display technologies are maturing, enabling huge displays and displays that are thin, lightweight, and low in power use. This has large effects on portability and will likely enable developing paper-like, pen-based computer interaction systems very different in feel from present desktop workstations. * ''Information utilities''. Public information utilities (such as home banking and shopping) and specialized industry services (e.g., weather for pilots) are expected to proliferate. The proliferation rate can accelerate with the introduction of high-bandwidth interaction and the improvement in the quality of interfaces.


Scientific conferences

One of the main conferences for new research in human–computer interaction is the annually held
Association for Computing Machinery The Association for Computing Machinery (ACM) is a US-based international learned society for computing. It was founded in 1947 and is the world's largest scientific and educational computing society. The ACM is a non-profit professional member ...
's (ACM) ''
Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems The ACM Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (CHI) series of academic conferences is generally considered the most prestigious in the field of human–computer interaction and is one of the top-ranked conferences in computer science ...
'', usually referred to by its short name CHI (pronounced ''kai'', or ''Khai''). CHI is organized by ACM Special Interest Group on Computer-Human Interaction ( SIGCHI). CHI is a large conference, with thousands of attendants, and is quite broad in scope. It is attended by academics, practitioners, and industry people, with company sponsors such as Google, Microsoft, and PayPal. There are also dozens of other smaller, regional, or specialized HCI-related conferences held around the world each year, including: * ACEICFAASRS: ACE – International Conference on Future Applications of AI, Sensors, and Robotics in Society * ASSETS: ACM International Conference on Computers and
Accessibility Accessibility is the design of products, devices, services, vehicles, or environments so as to be usable by people with disabilities. The concept of accessible design and practice of accessible development ensures both "direct access" (i. ...
* CSCW: ACM conference on
Computer Supported Cooperative Work Computer-supported cooperative work (CSCW) is the study of how people utilize technology collaboratively, often towards a shared goal. CSCW addresses how computer systems can support collaborative activity and coordination. More specifically, the ...
* CC: Aarhus decennial conference on Critical Computing * CUI: ACM conference on Conversational User Interfaces * DIS: ACM conference on Designing Interactive Systems * ECSCW: European Conference on Computer-Supported Cooperative Work * GROUP: ACM conference on supporting group work * HRI: ACM/IEEE International Conference on Human–robot interaction * HCII: Human–Computer Interaction International * ICMI: International Conference on Multimodal Interfaces * ITS: ACM conference on
Interactive Tabletops and Surfaces Across the many fields concerned with interactivity, including information science, computer science, human-computer interaction, communication, and industrial design, there is little agreement over the meaning of the term "interactivity", but ...
* MobileHCI: International Conference on Human–Computer Interaction with Mobile Devices and Services * NIME: International Conference on
New Interfaces for Musical Expression New Interfaces for Musical Expression, also known as NIME, is an international conference dedicated to scientific research on the development of new technologies and their role in musical expression and artistic performance. History The confe ...
* OzCHI: Australian Conference on Human–Computer Interaction * TEI: International Conference on Tangible, Embedded and Embodied Interaction * Ubicomp: International Conference on
Ubiquitous computing Ubiquitous computing (or "ubicomp") is a concept in software engineering, hardware engineering and computer science where computing is made to appear anytime and everywhere. In contrast to desktop computing, ubiquitous computing can occur using ...
* UIST:
ACM Symposium on User Interface Software and Technology The ACM Symposium on User Interface Software and Technology (UIST) is an annual conference for technical innovations in human–computer interfaces. UIST is sponsored by ACM SIGCHI and ACM SIGGRAPH. By impact factor, it is one of impactful confer ...
* i-USEr: International Conference on User Science and Engineering * INTERACT: IFIP TC13 Conference on Human–Computer Interaction * IHCI: International Conference on Intelligent Human–Computer Interaction


See also

* * Outline of human–computer interaction *
Information design Information design is the practice of presenting information in a way that fosters an efficient and effective understanding of the information. The term has come to be used for a specific area of graphic design related to displaying information ...
* Information architecture * User experience design * Mindfulness and technology * CAPTCHA *
Digital Live Art Digital Live Art Sheridan, J.G. (2006). "Digital Live Art: Mediating Wittingness in Playful Arenas". PhD Thesis. University of Lancaster: Lancaster. is the intersection of Live Art (art form), Computing and Human Computer Interaction (HCI). It is ...
*
Turing test The Turing test, originally called the imitation game by Alan Turing in 1950, is a test of a machine's ability to exhibit intelligent behaviour equivalent to, or indistinguishable from, that of a human. Turing proposed that a human evaluat ...
*
HCI Bibliography The HCI Bibliography is a web-based project to provide a bibliography of Human Computer Interaction (HCI) literature. The goal of the Project is ''to put an electronic bibliography for most of HCI on the screens of all researchers, developers, educ ...
, a web-based project to provide a bibliography of Human Computer Interaction literature


Footnotes


Further reading

; Academic overviews of the field * Julie A. Jacko (Ed.). (2012). Human–Computer Interaction Handbook (3rd Edition). CRC Press. * Andrew Sears and Julie A. Jacko (Eds.). (2007). Human–Computer Interaction Handbook (2nd Edition). CRC Press. * Julie A. Jacko and Andrew Sears (Eds.). (2003). Human–Computer Interaction Handbook. Mahwah: Lawrence Erlbaum & Associates. ; Historically important classic *
Stuart K. Card Stuart K. Card (born December 21, 1943), an American researcher and retired senior research fellow at Xerox PARC, is considered to be one of the pioneers of applying human factors in human–computer interaction. With Jock D. Mackinlay, George G. ...
, Thomas P. Moran,
Allen Newell Allen Newell (March 19, 1927 – July 19, 1992) was a researcher in computer science and cognitive psychology at the RAND Corporation and at Carnegie Mellon University’s School of Computer Science, Tepper School of Business, and Depart ...
(1983): ''The Psychology of Human–Computer Interaction''. Erlbaum, Hillsdale 1983 ; Overviews of history of the field *
Jonathan Grudin Jonathan Grudin (born December 13, 1949) is a principal design researcher at Microsoft and affiliate professor at the University of Washington Information School working in the fields of human-computer interaction and computer-supported cooper ...
: ''A moving target: The evolution of human–computer interaction.'' In Andrew Sears and Julie A. Jacko (Eds.). (2007). Human–Computer Interaction Handbook (2nd Edition). CRC Press. * * John M. Carroll
Human–Computer Interaction: History and Status.
Encyclopedia Entry at Interaction-Design.org * * Sara Candeias, S. and A. Veiga ''The dialogue between man and machine: the role of language theory and technology'', Sandra M. Aluísio & Stella E. O. Tagnin, New Language Technologies, and Linguistic Research, A Two-Way Road: cap. 11. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. () ;Social science and HCI * * * * ;Academic journals * '' ACM Transactions on Computer-Human Interaction'' * ''Behaviour & Information Technology'

* ''Interacting with Computers'' * ''International Journal of Human-Computer Interaction'' * ''International Journal of Human-Computer Studies'' * ''Human–Computer Interaction'

; Collection of papers * Ronald Baecker, Ronald M. Baecker,
Jonathan Grudin Jonathan Grudin (born December 13, 1949) is a principal design researcher at Microsoft and affiliate professor at the University of Washington Information School working in the fields of human-computer interaction and computer-supported cooper ...
, William A. S. Buxton, Saul Greenberg (Eds.) (1995): ''Readings in human–computer interaction. Toward the Year 2000''. 2. ed. Morgan Kaufmann, San Francisco 1995 *Mithun Ahamed, Developing a Message Interface Architecture for Android Operating Systems, (2015)

; Treatments by one or few authors, often aimed at a more general audience * Jakob Nielsen (usability consultant), Jakob Nielsen: ''Usability Engineering''. Academic Press, Boston 1993 *
Donald A. Norman Donald Arthur Norman (born December 25, 1935) is an American researcher, professor, and author. Norman is the director of The Design Lab at University of California, San Diego. He is best known for his books on design, especially ''The Design ...
: ''
The Psychology of Everyday Things ''The Design of Everyday Things'' is a best-selling book by cognitive scientist and usability engineer Donald Norman about how design serves as the communication between object and user, and how to optimize that conduit of communication in order ...
''. Basic Books, New York 1988 *
Jef Raskin Jef Raskin (born Jeff Raskin; March 9, 1943 – February 26, 2005) was an American human–computer interface expert best known for conceiving and starting the Macintosh project at Apple in the late 1970s. Early life and education Jef Raskin ...
: '' The Humane Interface. New directions for designing interactive systems''. Addison-Wesley, Boston 2000 *
Bruce Tognazzini Bruce "Tog" Tognazzini (born 1945) is an American usability consultant and designer. He is a partner in the Nielsen Norman Group, which specializes in human-computer interaction. He was with Apple Computer for fourteen years, then with Sun Micr ...
: ''Tog on Interface''. Addison-Wesley, Reading 1991 ; Textbooks *
Alan Dix Alan John Dix is a British author, researcher, and university professor, specialising in human–computer interaction (HCI). He is one of the four co-authors of the university level textbook ''Human–Computer Interaction''. Dix is the Director ...
, Janet Finlay,
Gregory Abowd Gregory Dominic Abowd (born September 12, 1964) is a computer scientist best known for his work in ubiquitous computing, software engineering, and technologies for autism. He currently serves as the Dean of the College of Engineering and Professo ...
, and Russell Beale (2003): ''Human–Computer Interaction''. 3rd Edition. Prentice Hall, 2003. http://hcibook.com/e3/ * Yvonne Rogers, Helen Sharp & Jenny Preece: ''Interaction Design: Beyond Human–Computer Interaction, 3rd ed. John Wiley & Sons Ltd., 2011 * Helen Sharp, Yvonne Rogers & Jenny Preece: ''Interaction Design: Beyond Human–Computer Interaction, 2nd ed. John Wiley & Sons Ltd., 2007 *
Matt Jones (interaction designer) Matt Jones is the co-author - with Gary Marsden - of ''Mobile Interaction Design'' ( ) and a full research Professor at Swansea University. With the late Marsden and Simon Robinson he authored a new book in 2015 - ''There's Not an App for That'' (Mo ...
and Gary Marsden (2006). ''Mobile Interaction Design'',
John Wiley and Sons John Wiley & Sons, Inc., commonly known as Wiley (), is an American multinational publishing company founded in 1807 that focuses on academic publishing and instructional materials. The company produces books, journals, and encyclopedias, in ...
Ltd.


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Computer A computer is a machine that can be programmed to carry out sequences of arithmetic or logical operations ( computation) automatically. Modern digital electronic computers can perform generic sets of operations known as programs. These prog ...