Holotomography (HT) is a

laser A laser is a device that emits light through a process of optical amplification based on the stimulated emission of electromagnetic radiation. The word "laser" is an acronym for "light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation". The ...

technique to measure three-dimensional

refractive index In optics, the refractive index (or refraction index) of an optical medium is a dimensionless number that gives the indication of the light bending ability of that medium. The refractive index determines how much the path of light is bent, ...

(RI) tomogram of a microscopic sample such as biological cells and tissues. Because the RI can serve as an intrinsic imaging contrast for transparent or phase objects, measurements of RI tomograms can provide label-free quantitative imaging of microscopic phase objects. In order to measure 3-D RI tomogram of samples, HT employs the principle of

holographic Holography is a technique that enables a wavefront to be recorded and later re-constructed. Holography is best known as a method of generating real three-dimensional images, but it also has a wide range of other applications. In principle, i ...

imaging and inverse scattering. Typically, multiple 2D holographic images of a sample are measured at various illumination angles, employing the principle of interferometric imaging. Then, a 3D RI tomogram of the sample is reconstructed from these multiple 2D holographic images by inversely solving light scattering in the sample.

History

The first theoretical proposal was presented by Emil Wolf, and the first experimental demonstration was shown by Fercher et al. From 2000s, HT techniques had been extensively studied and applied to the field of biology and medicine, by several research groups including the MIT spectroscopy laboratory. Both the technical developments and applications of HT have been significantly advanced. In 2012 the first commercial HT company Nanolive was founded, later followed by Tomocube in 2014.

Principles

The principle of HT is very similar to

X-ray computed tomography An X-ray, or, much less commonly, X-radiation, is a penetrating form of high-energy electromagnetic radiation. Most X-rays have a wavelength ranging from 10 picometers to 10 nanometers, corresponding to frequencies in the range 30 ...

(CT) or CT scan. CT scan measures multiple 2-D X-ray images of a human body at various illumination angles, and a 3-D tomogram (X-ray absorptivity) is then retrieved via the inverse scattering theory. Both the X-ray CT and laser HT shares the same governing equation –

Helmholtz equation In mathematics, the eigenvalue problem for the Laplace operator is known as the Helmholtz equation. It corresponds to the linear partial differential equation \nabla^2 f = -k^2 f, where is the Laplace operator (or "Laplacian"), is the eigenvalu ...

, the wave equation for a monochromatic wavelength. HT is also known as optical diffraction tomography.

Advantages and limitations

HT provides following advantages over conventional 3D microscopic techniques. # Label-free: Cellular membrane and subcellular organelles can clearly be imaged without using exogenous labeling agents. Thus, there are no issues of phototoxicity, photobleaching and photodamaging. # Quantitative imaging capability: HT directly measures cell’s 3D RI maps, which is intrinsic optical properties of materials. Because the measured RI can be translated into the mass density of a cell and using this information, mass of a cell can also be retrieved. # Precise and fast measurements: HT provides the spatial resolution down to approximately 100 nm and the temporal resolution of a few to a hundred frames per second, depending on the numerical apertures of used objective lenses and the speed of an image sensor. However, 3D RI tomography does not provide molecular specificity. Generally, the measured RI information cannot be directly related to information about molecules or proteins, except for notable cases such as gold nanoparticles or lipid droplets that exhibit distinctly high RI values compared to cell cytoplasm.

Applications

The applications of HT include: 3D RI image of a live cell

Cell biology

HT provides 3D dynamic images of live cells and thin tissues without using exogenous labeling agents such as fluorescence proteins or dyes. HT enables quantitative live cell imaging, and also provides quantitative information such as cell volume, surface area, protein concentration. The label-free imaging and quantification of chromosomes were presented. The regulatory pathway of proteasome degradation by autophagy in cells were studies using HT.

Correlative imaging

HT can be used with other imaging modalities for correlative imaging. For example, a combination of HT and fluorescence imaging enables a synergistic analytic approach. HT provides structural information whereas fluorescence signal provides molecular specific imaging, an optical analogous to

positron emission tomography Positron emission tomography (PET) is a functional imaging technique that uses radioactive substances known as radiotracers to visualize and measure changes in metabolic processes, and in other physiological activities including blood flow, ...

(PET) and CT. Various approaches have been reported for correlative imaging approaches using HT.

Lipid quantification

Intracellular lipid droplets play important roles in energy storage and metabolism, and are also related to various pathologies, including cancer, obesity, and diabetes mellitus. HT enables label-free and quantitative imaging and analysis for free or intracellular lipid droplets. Because lipid droplets have distinctly high RI (''n'' > 1.375) compared to other parts of cytoplasm, the measurements of RI tomograms provide information about the volume, concentration, and dry mass of lipid droplets. Recently, HT was used to evaluate the therapeutic effects of a nanodrug designed to affect the targeted delivery of lobeglitazone by measuring lipid droplets in foam cells.

Experimental laboratory

HT provide various quantitative imaging capability, providing morphological, biochemical, and mechanical properties of individuals cells. 3D RI tomography directly provides morphological properties including volume, surface area, and

sphericity Sphericity is a measure of how closely the shape of an object resembles that of a perfect sphere. For example, the sphericity of the balls inside a ball bearing determines the quality of the bearing, such as the load it can bear or the speed a ...

(roundness) of a cell. Local RI value can be translated into biochemical information or cytoplasmic protein concentration, because the RI of a solution is linearly proportional to its concentration. In particular, for the case of

red blood cell Red blood cells (RBCs), also referred to as red cells, red blood corpuscles (in humans or other animals not having nucleus in red blood cells), haematids, erythroid cells or erythrocytes (from Greek ''erythros'' for "red" and ''kytos'' for "hol ...

s, RI value can be converted into hemoglobin concentration. Measurements of dynamic cell membrane fluctuation, which can also be obtained with a HT instrument, provides information about cellular deformability. Furthermore, these various quantitative parameters can be obtained at the single cell level, allowing correlative analysis between various cellular parameters. HT has been utilized for the study of red blood cells, white blood cells, blood storage, and diabetes.

Infectious diseases

The quantitative label-free imaging capability of HT have been exploited for the study of various infectious diseases. In particular, parasites-invaded host cells can be effectively imaged and studied using HT. This is because the staining or labeling of parasites requires complicated preparation process and the staining/labeling is not very effective in several parasites. The invasion of ''plasmodium falciparum'', or malaria inducing parasites, to individual red blood cells were measured using HT. The structural and biophysical alteration to host cells and parasites have been systematically analyzed. The invasion of babesia parasites to red blood cells were also studied. ''Toxoplasma gondii'', apicomplexan parasite causing toxoplasmosis, can infect nucleated cells. The alterations of 3D morphology and biophysical properties of ''T gondii'' infected cells were studied using HT.

Biotechnology

The cell volume and dry mass of individual bacteria or micro algae can be effectively quantified using HT.{{Cite journal, title=Enhanced succinic acid production by Mannheimia employing optimal malate dehydrogenase, journal=Nature Communications, year=2020, doi=10.1038/s41467-020-15839-z, last1=Ahn, first1=Jung Ho, last2=Seo, first2=Hogyun, last3=Park, first3=Woojin, last4=Seok, first4=Jihye, last5=Lee, first5=Jong An, last6=Kim, first6=Won Jun, last7=Kim, first7=Gi Bae, last8=Kim, first8=Kyung-Jin, last9=Lee, first9=Sang Yup, volume=11, issue=1, page=1970, pmid=32327663, pmc=7181634 Because it does not requires the staining process while providing the precise quantification values, HT can be used for testing the efficacy of engineered stains.

Scientific community

The following are active scientific conferences on HT, as a part of quantitative phase imaging techniques:
Quantitative phase imaging conference
SPIE Photonics West The HT technique and applications have been included in the following special issues of scientific journals:
Special Issue on Quantitative Phase Imaging
for Label-Free Cytometry in Cytometry Part A, 2019
Research Topic on Quantitative Phase Imaging and Its Applications to Biophysics, Biology, and Medicine
in Frontiers in Physics

References

Imaging Scientific instruments