Nuclear fission
Nuclear fission is a reaction in which the nucleus of an atom splits into two or more smaller nuclei. The fission process often produces gamma photons, and releases a very large amount of energy even by the energetic standards of radio ...
splits a heavy nucleus such as
uranium
Uranium is a chemical element with the symbol U and atomic number 92. It is a silvery-grey metal in the actinide series of the periodic table. A uranium atom has 92 protons and 92 electrons, of which 6 are valence electrons. Uranium is weak ...
or
plutonium
Plutonium is a radioactive chemical element with the symbol Pu and atomic number 94. It is an actinide metal of silvery-gray appearance that tarnishes when exposed to air, and forms a dull coating when oxidized. The element normally exhibi ...
into two lighter nuclei, which are called
fission products. Yield refers to the fraction of a fission product produced per fission.
Yield can be broken down by:
# Individual
isotope
Isotopes are two or more types of atoms that have the same atomic number (number of protons in their nuclei) and position in the periodic table (and hence belong to the same chemical element), and that differ in nucleon numbers (mass numb ...
#
Chemical element
A chemical element is a species of atoms that have a given number of protons in their nuclei, including the pure substance consisting only of that species. Unlike chemical compounds, chemical elements cannot be broken down into simpler sub ...
spanning several isotopes of different
mass number
The mass number (symbol ''A'', from the German word ''Atomgewicht'' tomic weight, also called atomic mass number or nucleon number, is the total number of protons and neutrons (together known as nucleons) in an atomic nucleus. It is approxima ...
but same
atomic number
The atomic number or nuclear charge number (symbol ''Z'') of a chemical element is the charge number of an atomic nucleus. For ordinary nuclei, this is equal to the proton number (''n''p) or the number of protons found in the nucleus of every ...
.
# Nuclei of a given
mass number
The mass number (symbol ''A'', from the German word ''Atomgewicht'' tomic weight, also called atomic mass number or nucleon number, is the total number of protons and neutrons (together known as nucleons) in an atomic nucleus. It is approxima ...
regardless of
atomic number
The atomic number or nuclear charge number (symbol ''Z'') of a chemical element is the charge number of an atomic nucleus. For ordinary nuclei, this is equal to the proton number (''n''p) or the number of protons found in the nucleus of every ...
. Known as "chain yield" because it represents a
decay chain
In nuclear science, the decay chain refers to a series of radioactive decays of different radioactive decay products as a sequential series of transformations. It is also known as a "radioactive cascade". Most radioisotopes do not decay dire ...
of
beta decay
In nuclear physics, beta decay (β-decay) is a type of radioactive decay in which a beta particle (fast energetic electron or positron) is emitted from an atomic nucleus, transforming the original nuclide to an isobar of that nuclide. For ...
.
Isotope and element yields will change as the fission products undergo beta decay, while chain yields do not change after completion of
neutron emission
Neutron emission is a mode of radioactive decay in which one or more neutrons are ejected from a nucleus. It occurs in the most neutron-rich/proton-deficient nuclides, and also from excited states of other nuclides as in photoneutron emission and ...
by a few neutron-rich initial fission products (
delayed neutrons), with
half-life
Half-life (symbol ) is the time required for a quantity (of substance) to reduce to half of its initial value. The term is commonly used in nuclear physics to describe how quickly unstable atoms undergo radioactive decay or how long stable at ...
measured in seconds.
A few isotopes can be produced directly by fission, but not by beta decay because the would-be precursor with atomic number one greater is stable and does not decay. Chain yields do not account for these "shadowed" isotopes; however, they have very low yields (less than a millionth as much as common fission products) because they are far less neutron-rich than the original heavy nuclei.
Yield is usually stated as
percentage per fission, so that the total yield percentages sum to 200%. Less often, it is stated as percentage of all fission products, so that the percentages sum to 100%.
Ternary fission, about 0.2–0.4% of fissions, also produces a third light nucleus such as
helium-4 (90%) or
tritium
Tritium ( or , ) or hydrogen-3 (symbol T or H) is a rare and radioactive isotope of hydrogen with half-life about 12 years. The nucleus of tritium (t, sometimes called a ''triton'') contains one proton and two neutrons, whereas the nucleus of ...
(7%).
Mass vs. yield curve
If a graph of the
mass
Mass is an intrinsic property of a body. It was traditionally believed to be related to the quantity of matter in a physical body, until the discovery of the atom and particle physics. It was found that different atoms and different eleme ...
or
mole
Mole (or Molé) may refer to:
Animals
* Mole (animal) or "true mole", mammals in the family Talpidae, found in Eurasia and North America
* Golden moles, southern African mammals in the family Chrysochloridae, similar to but unrelated to Talpida ...
yield of
fission products against the
atomic number
The atomic number or nuclear charge number (symbol ''Z'') of a chemical element is the charge number of an atomic nucleus. For ordinary nuclei, this is equal to the proton number (''n''p) or the number of protons found in the nucleus of every ...
of the fragments is drawn then it has two peaks, one in the area
zirconium
Zirconium is a chemical element with the symbol Zr and atomic number 40. The name ''zirconium'' is taken from the name of the mineral zircon, the most important source of zirconium. The word is related to Persian '' zargun'' (zircon; ''zar-gun'' ...
through to
palladium
Palladium is a chemical element with the symbol Pd and atomic number 46. It is a rare and lustrous silvery-white metal discovered in 1803 by the English chemist William Hyde Wollaston. He named it after the asteroid Pallas, which was itself na ...
and one at
xenon
Xenon is a chemical element with the symbol Xe and atomic number 54. It is a dense, colorless, odorless noble gas found in Earth's atmosphere in trace amounts. Although generally unreactive, it can undergo a few chemical reactions such as the ...
through to
neodymium
Neodymium is a chemical element with the symbol Nd and atomic number 60. It is the fourth member of the lanthanide series and is considered to be one of the rare-earth metals. It is a hard, slightly malleable, silvery metal that quickly tarnishe ...
. This is because the fission event causes the nucleus to split in an asymmetric manner,
as nuclei closer to
magic numbers are more stable.
[
]
Yield vs. Z - This is a typical distribution for the fission of
uranium
Uranium is a chemical element with the symbol U and atomic number 92. It is a silvery-grey metal in the actinide series of the periodic table. A uranium atom has 92 protons and 92 electrons, of which 6 are valence electrons. Uranium is weak ...
. Note that in the calculations used to make this graph the activation of fission products was ignored and the fission was assumed to occur in a single moment rather than a length of time. In this bar chart results are shown for different cooling times (time after fission).
Because of the stability of nuclei with even numbers of
protons and/or
neutron
The neutron is a subatomic particle, symbol or , which has a neutral (not positive or negative) charge, and a mass slightly greater than that of a proton. Protons and neutrons constitute the nuclei of atoms. Since protons and neutrons beh ...
s the curve of yield against element is not a smooth curve. It tends to alternate.
In general, the higher the energy of the state that undergoes nuclear fission, the more likely a symmetric fission is, hence as the
neutron energy
The neutron detection temperature, also called the neutron energy, indicates a free neutron's kinetic energy, usually given in electron volts. The term ''temperature'' is used, since hot, thermal and cold neutrons are moderated in a medium with ...
increases and/or the energy of the
fissile
In nuclear engineering, fissile material is material capable of sustaining a nuclear fission chain reaction. By definition, fissile material can sustain a chain reaction with neutrons of thermal energy. The predominant neutron energy may be t ...
atom increases, the valley between the two peaks becomes more shallow; for instance, the curve of yield against mass for
Pu-239 has a more shallow valley than that observed for
U-235
Uranium-235 (235U or U-235) is an isotope of uranium making up about 0.72% of natural uranium. Unlike the predominant isotope uranium-238, it is fissile, i.e., it can sustain a nuclear chain reaction. It is the only fissile isotope that exist ...
, when the neutrons are
thermal neutron
The neutron detection temperature, also called the neutron energy, indicates a free neutron's kinetic energy, usually given in electron volts. The term ''temperature'' is used, since hot, thermal and cold neutrons are moderated in a medium wi ...
s. The curves for the fission of the later
actinides
The actinide () or actinoid () series encompasses the 15 metallic chemical elements with atomic numbers from 89 to 103, actinium through lawrencium. The actinide series derives its name from the first element in the series, actinium. The inform ...
tend to make even more shallow valleys. In extreme cases such as
259Fm, only one peak is seen.
Yield is usually expressed relative to number of fissioning nuclei, not the number of fission product nuclei, that is, yields should sum to 200%.
The table in the next section ("Ordered by yield") gives yields for notable
radioactive
Radioactive decay (also known as nuclear decay, radioactivity, radioactive disintegration, or nuclear disintegration) is the process by which an unstable atomic nucleus loses energy by radiation. A material containing unstable nuclei is consi ...
(with
half-lives greater than one year, plus
iodine-131
Iodine-131 (131I, I-131) is an important radioisotope of iodine discovered by Glenn Seaborg and John Livingood in 1938 at the University of California, Berkeley. It has a radioactive decay half-life of about eight days. It is associated with nu ...
)
fission products, and (the few most absorptive)
neutron poison
In applications such as nuclear reactors, a neutron poison (also called a neutron absorber or a nuclear poison) is a substance with a large neutron absorption cross-section. In such applications, absorbing neutrons is normally an undesirable eff ...
fission products, from
thermal neutron
The neutron detection temperature, also called the neutron energy, indicates a free neutron's kinetic energy, usually given in electron volts. The term ''temperature'' is used, since hot, thermal and cold neutrons are moderated in a medium wi ...
fission of
U-235
Uranium-235 (235U or U-235) is an isotope of uranium making up about 0.72% of natural uranium. Unlike the predominant isotope uranium-238, it is fissile, i.e., it can sustain a nuclear chain reaction. It is the only fissile isotope that exist ...
(typical of
nuclear power
Nuclear power is the use of nuclear reactions to produce electricity. Nuclear power can be obtained from nuclear fission, nuclear decay and nuclear fusion reactions. Presently, the vast majority of electricity from nuclear power is produced ...
reactors), computed fro
The yields in the table sum to only 45.5522%, including 34.8401% which have half-lives greater than one year:
The remainder and the unlisted 54.4478% decay with half-lives less than one year into nonradioactive nuclei.
This is before accounting for the effects of any subsequent neutron capture; e.g.:
*
135Xe">Xenon-135, 135Xe capturing a neutron and becoming nearly stable
136Xe, rather than decaying to
135Cs which is radioactive with a half-life of 2.3 million years
* Nonradioactive
133Cs capturing a neutron and becoming
134Cs, which is radioactive with a half-life of 2 years
* Many of the fission products with mass 147 or greater such as
147Pm,
149Sm,
151Sm, and
155Eu have significant cross sections for neutron capture, so that one heavy fission product atom can undergo multiple successive neutron captures.
Besides fission products, the other types of radioactive products are
*
plutonium
Plutonium is a radioactive chemical element with the symbol Pu and atomic number 94. It is an actinide metal of silvery-gray appearance that tarnishes when exposed to air, and forms a dull coating when oxidized. The element normally exhibi ...
containing
238Pu,
239Pu,
240Pu,
241Pu, and
242Pu,
*
minor actinides including
237Np,
241Am,
243Am,
curium isotopes, and perhaps
californium
Californium is a radioactive chemical element with the symbol Cf and atomic number 98. The element was first synthesized in 1950 at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (then the University of California Radiation Laboratory), by bombarding ...
*
reprocessed uranium
Reprocessed uranium (RepU) is the uranium recovered from nuclear reprocessing, as done commercially in France, the UK and Japan and by nuclear weapons states' military plutonium production programs. This uranium makes up the bulk of the material s ...
containing
236U and other isotopes
*
tritium
Tritium ( or , ) or hydrogen-3 (symbol T or H) is a rare and radioactive isotope of hydrogen with half-life about 12 years. The nucleus of tritium (t, sometimes called a ''triton'') contains one proton and two neutrons, whereas the nucleus of ...
*
activation products
Activation products are materials made radioactive by neutron activation.
Fission products and actinides produced by neutron absorption of nuclear fuel itself are normally referred to by those specific names, and ''activation product'' reserved fo ...
of neutron capture by the reactor or bomb structure or the environment
Fission products from U-235
Cumulative fission yields
Cumulative fission yields give the amounts of nuclides produced either directly in the fission or by decay of other nuclides.
Ordered by mass number
Decays, even if lengthy, are given down to the stable nuclide.
Decays with half lives longer than a century are marked with a single asterisk (), while decays with a half life longer than a hundred million years are marked with two asterisks ().
Half lives, decay modes, and branching fractions
Ordered by thermal neutron absorption cross section
{, class="wikitable sortable"
! Barns !! Yield !! Isotope !! ''t''
½ !! Comment
, -
, align= , , 6.3333% , ,
135I → 135Xe , , 6.57 h , , Most important
neutron poison
In applications such as nuclear reactors, a neutron poison (also called a neutron absorber or a nuclear poison) is a substance with a large neutron absorption cross-section. In such applications, absorbing neutrons is normally an undesirable eff ...
;
neutron capture
Neutron capture is a nuclear reaction in which an atomic nucleus and one or more neutrons collide and merge to form a heavier nucleus. Since neutrons have no electric charge, they can enter a nucleus more easily than positively charged protons, ...
rapidly converts
135Xe to
136Xe; remainder decays (9.14 h) to
135Cs (2.3 My).
, -
, align= , , 0.0065% , ,
157Gd , , ∞ , ,
Neutron poison
In applications such as nuclear reactors, a neutron poison (also called a neutron absorber or a nuclear poison) is a substance with a large neutron absorption cross-section. In such applications, absorbing neutrons is normally an undesirable eff ...
, but low yield.
, -
, align= , , 1.0888% , ,
149Sm , , ∞ , , 2nd most important
neutron poison
In applications such as nuclear reactors, a neutron poison (also called a neutron absorber or a nuclear poison) is a substance with a large neutron absorption cross-section. In such applications, absorbing neutrons is normally an undesirable eff ...
.
, -
, align= , , 0.0003% , ,
113mCd , , 14.1 y , , Most will be destroyed by neutron capture.
, -
, align= , , 0.4203% , ,
151Sm , , 90 y , , Most will be destroyed by neutron capture.
, -
, align=
60,900 , , 0.0330% , ,
155Eu → 155Gd , , 4.76 y , , Both
neutron poison
In applications such as nuclear reactors, a neutron poison (also called a neutron absorber or a nuclear poison) is a substance with a large neutron absorption cross-section. In such applications, absorbing neutrons is normally an undesirable eff ...
s.
, -
, align= , , 2.2713% , ,
147Pm , , 2.62 y, , Suitable for
radioisotope thermoelectric generators with annual or semi-annual refueling.
, -
, align= , , 2.8336% , ,
131I , , 8.02 d
, -
, align=
140 , , 6.7896% , ,
133Cs → 134Cs , , ∞
2.065 y , ,
Neutron capture
Neutron capture is a nuclear reaction in which an atomic nucleus and one or more neutrons collide and merge to form a heavier nucleus. Since neutrons have no electric charge, they can enter a nucleus more easily than positively charged protons, ...
converts a few percent of nonradioactive
133Cs to
134Cs, which has very low direct yield because
beta decay
In nuclear physics, beta decay (β-decay) is a type of radioactive decay in which a beta particle (fast energetic electron or positron) is emitted from an atomic nucleus, transforming the original nuclide to an isobar of that nuclide. For ...
stops at
134Xe; further capture will add to long-lived
135Cs.
, -
, align= , , 6.0507% , ,
99Tc , , 211 ky , , Candidate for disposal by
nuclear transmutation.
, -
, align= , , 0.6576% , ,
129I , , 15.7 My , , Candidate for disposal by
nuclear transmutation.
, -
, align= , , 6.2956% , ,
93Zr , , 1.53 My , , Transmutation impractical.
, -
, align= , , 0.1629% , ,
107Pd , , 6.5 My
, -
, align= , , 0.2717% , ,
85Kr , , 10.78 y
, -
, align= , , 5.7518% , ,
90Sr , , 28.9 y
, -
, align= , , 0.3912% , ,
106Ru , , 373.6 d
, -
, align= , , 6.0899% , ,
137Cs , , 30.17 y
, -
, , , 0.0297% , ,
125Sb , , 2.76 y
, -
, , , 0.0236% , ,
126Sn , , 230 ky
, -
, , , 0.0508% , ,
79Se , , {{ntsh, 327000 327 ky
, -
References
External links
HANDBOOK OF NUCLEAR DATA FOR SAFEGUARDS: DATABASE EXTENSIONS, AUGUST 2008* '
The Live Chart of Nuclides - IAEA '' Color-map of yields, and detailed data by click on a nuclide.
Nuclear fission
Nuclear chemistry