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In
linguistics Linguistics is the scientific study of human language. It is called a scientific study because it entails a comprehensive, systematic, objective, and precise analysis of all aspects of language, particularly its nature and structure. Ling ...
, a distinctive feature is the most basic unit of phonological structure that distinguishes one sound from another within a language. For example, the feature oicedistinguishes the two bilabial plosives: and There are many different ways of defining and arranging features into ''feature systems'': some deal with only one language while others are developed to apply to all languages. Distinctive features are grouped into categories according to the natural classes of segments they describe: major class features, laryngeal features, manner features, and place features. These feature categories in turn are further specified on the basis of the
phonetic Phonetics is a branch of linguistics that studies how humans produce and perceive sounds, or in the case of sign languages, the equivalent aspects of sign. Linguists who specialize in studying the physical properties of speech are phoneticians. ...
properties of the segments in question. For phonemes to be in a particular natural class, they have to share the same distinctive features such as articulation and/or sound similar to each other. We can find distinctive features between two words by finding the minimal pair between them. The minimal pair are when two words sound the same, but they are different in definition because the pair has different phonemes from each other. Since the inception of the phonological analysis of distinctive features in the 1950s, features traditionally have been specified by binary values to signify whether a segment is described by the feature; a positive value, denotes the presence of a feature, while a negative value, minus; indicates its absence. In addition, a phoneme may be unmarked with respect to a feature. It is also possible for certain
phoneme In phonology and linguistics, a phoneme () is a unit of sound that can distinguish one word from another in a particular language. For example, in most dialects of English, with the notable exception of the West Midlands and the north-wes ...
s to have different features across languages. For example, could be classified as a continuant or not in a given language depending on how it patterns with other consonants. After the first distinctive feature theory was created by Jakobson in 1941, it was assumed that the distinctive features are binary and this theory about distinctive features being binary was formally adopted in “Sound Pattern of English” by Chomsky and Halle in 1968. Jakobson saw the binary approach as the best way to make the phoneme inventory shorter and the phonological oppositions are naturally binary. In recent developments to the theory of distinctive features, phonologists have proposed the existence of single-valued features. These features, called univalent or privative features, can only describe the classes of segments that are said to possess those features, and not the classes that are without them.


List

This section lists and describes distinctive features in linguistics.


Major class

Major class features: The features that represent the major classes of sounds. # /− syllabicref name=":0"> Syllabic segments may function as the
nucleus Nucleus ( : nuclei) is a Latin word for the seed inside a fruit. It most often refers to: * Atomic nucleus, the very dense central region of an atom *Cell nucleus, a central organelle of a eukaryotic cell, containing most of the cell's DNA Nucl ...
of a
syllable A syllable is a unit of organization for a sequence of speech sounds typically made up of a syllable nucleus (most often a vowel) with optional initial and final margins (typically, consonants). Syllables are often considered the phonological ...
, while their counterparts, the minus;syllsegments, may not. Except in the case of
syllabic consonant A syllabic consonant or vocalic consonant is a consonant that forms a syllable on its own, like the ''m'', ''n'' and ''l'' in some pronunciations of the English words ''rhythm'', ''button'' and ''bottle''. To represent it, the understroke diacrit ...
s, syllabicdesignates all vowels, while minus;syllabicdesignates all
consonant In articulatory phonetics, a consonant is a speech sound that is articulated with complete or partial closure of the vocal tract. Examples are and pronounced with the lips; and pronounced with the front of the tongue; and pronounced w ...
s (including glides). # /− consonantalref name=":1"> Consonantal segments are produced with an audible constriction in the
vocal tract The vocal tract is the cavity in human bodies and in animals where the sound produced at the sound source ( larynx in mammals; syrinx in birds) is filtered. In birds it consists of the trachea, the syrinx, the oral cavity, the upper part of th ...
, such as
obstruent An obstruent () is a speech sound such as , , or that is formed by ''obstructing'' airflow. Obstruents contrast with sonorants, which have no such obstruction and so resonate. All obstruents are consonants, but sonorants include vowels as well as ...
s,
nasal Nasal is an adjective referring to the nose, part of human or animal anatomy. It may also be shorthand for the following uses in combination: * With reference to the human nose: ** Nasal administration, a method of pharmaceutical drug delivery * ...
s, liquids, and trills. Vowels, glides and laryngeal segments are not consonantal. # /− approximantApproximant segments include vowels, glides, and liquids while excluding
nasal Nasal is an adjective referring to the nose, part of human or animal anatomy. It may also be shorthand for the following uses in combination: * With reference to the human nose: ** Nasal administration, a method of pharmaceutical drug delivery * ...
s and
obstruent An obstruent () is a speech sound such as , , or that is formed by ''obstructing'' airflow. Obstruents contrast with sonorants, which have no such obstruction and so resonate. All obstruents are consonants, but sonorants include vowels as well as ...
s. # /− sonorantref name=":1" /> This feature describes the type of oral constriction that can occur in the vocal tract.
son A son is a male offspring; a boy or a man in relation to his parents. The female counterpart is a daughter. From a biological perspective, a son constitutes a first degree relative. Social issues In pre-industrial societies and some curren ...
designates the vowels and
sonorant In phonetics and phonology, a sonorant or resonant is a speech sound that is produced with continuous, non-turbulent airflow in the vocal tract; these are the manners of articulation that are most often voiced in the world's languages. Vowels ar ...
consonants (namely glides, liquids, and
nasal Nasal is an adjective referring to the nose, part of human or animal anatomy. It may also be shorthand for the following uses in combination: * With reference to the human nose: ** Nasal administration, a method of pharmaceutical drug delivery * ...
s) that are produced without an imbalance of air pressure in the vocal tract that might cause turbulence. minus;sondescribes the
obstruent An obstruent () is a speech sound such as , , or that is formed by ''obstructing'' airflow. Obstruents contrast with sonorants, which have no such obstruction and so resonate. All obstruents are consonants, but sonorants include vowels as well as ...
s, articulated with a noticeable turbulence caused by an imbalance of air pressure in the vocal tract.


Laryngeal

Laryngeal features: The features that specify the glottal states of sounds. # /− voiceref name=":0" /> This feature indicates whether vibration of the
vocal folds In humans, vocal cords, also known as vocal folds or voice reeds, are folds of throat tissues that are key in creating sounds through vocalization. The size of vocal cords affects the pitch of voice. Open when breathing and vibrating for speec ...
occurs with the articulation of the segment. # /− spread glottisref name=":0" /> Used to indicate the aspiration of a segment, this feature denotes the openness of the glottis. For sg the vocal folds are spread apart widely enough for frication to occur; for minus;sg there is not the same friction-inducing spreading. # /− constricted glottisref name=":0" /> The constricted glottis features denotes the degree of closure of the glottis. cgimplies that the vocal folds are held closely together, enough so that air cannot pass through momentarily, while minus;cgimplies the opposite.


Manner

Manner features: The features that specify the
manner of articulation In articulatory phonetics, the manner of articulation is the configuration and interaction of the articulators ( speech organs such as the tongue, lips, and palate) when making a speech sound. One parameter of manner is ''stricture,'' that is ...
. # /−_continuant.html" ;"title="continuant.html" ;"title="/− continuant">/− continuant">continuant.html" ;"title="/− continuant">/− continuantref name=":1" /> This feature describes the passage of air through the vocal tract. [+cont] segments are produced without any significant obstruction in the tract, allowing air to pass through in a continuous stream. [−cont] segments, on the other hand, have such an obstruction, and so occlude the air flow at some point of articulation. #
nasal Nasal is an adjective referring to the nose, part of human or animal anatomy. It may also be shorthand for the following uses in combination: * With reference to the human nose: ** Nasal administration, a method of pharmaceutical drug delivery * ...
] This feature describes the position of the Soft palate, velum. [+nas] segments are produced by lowering the velum so that air can pass through the nasal cavity, nasal tract. [−nas] segments conversely are produced with a raised velum, blocking the passage of air to the nasal tract and shunting it to the oral tract. # /− stridentref name=":0" /> The strident feature applies to obstruents only and refers to a type of friction that is noisier than usual. This is caused by high energy
white noise In signal processing, white noise is a random signal having equal intensity at different frequencies, giving it a constant power spectral density. The term is used, with this or similar meanings, in many scientific and technical disciplines ...
. # lateral.html" ;"title="lateral_consonant.html" ;"title="/− lateral consonant">lateral">lateral_consonant.html" ;"title="/− lateral consonant">lateralref name=":0" /> This feature designates the shape and positioning of the tongue with respect to the oral tract. [+lat] segments are produced as the center of the tongue rises to contact the roof of the mouth, thereby blocking air from flowing centrally through the oral tract and instead forcing more lateral flow along the lowered side(s) of the tongue. # /− delayed releaseref name=":0" /> This feature distinguishes stops from
affricates An affricate is a consonant that begins as a stop and releases as a fricative, generally with the same place of articulation (most often coronal). It is often difficult to decide if a stop and fricative form a single phoneme or a consonant pa ...
. Affricates are designated
del rel Del, or nabla, is an Operator (mathematics), operator used in mathematics (particularly in vector calculus) as a vector (geometry), vector differential operator, usually represented by the nabla symbol ∇. When applied to a function (mathema ...


Place

Place features: The features that specify the place of articulation. *
LABIAL The term ''labial'' originates from '' Labium'' (Latin for "lip"), and is the adjective that describes anything of or related to lips, such as lip-like structures. Thus, it may refer to: * the lips ** In linguistics, a labial consonant ** In zoolog ...
] Labial segments are articulated with the lips. As consonants, these include bilabial consonant, bilabial and labiodental consonants. #[+/− round]: [+round] are produced with lip rounding, while minus;roundare not. * CORONAL_.html"_;"title="Coronal_consonant.html"_;"title="Coronal_consonant">CORONAL_">Coronal_consonant.html"_;"title="Coronal_consonant">CORONAL_ref_name=":0"_/>_Coronal_sounds_are_articulated_with_the_
CORONAL_.html"_;"title="Coronal_consonant.html"_;"title="Coronal_consonant">CORONAL_">Coronal_consonant.html"_;"title="Coronal_consonant">CORONAL_ref_name=":0"_/>_Coronal_sounds_are_articulated_with_the_ tip_and/or_laminal_consonant.html"__"title="apical_consonant.html"_;"title="Coronal_consonant">CORONAL_.html"_;"title="Coronal_consonant.html"_;"title="Coronal_consonant">CORONAL_">Coronal_consonant.html"_;"title="Coronal_consonant">CORONAL_ref_name=":0"_/>_Coronal_sounds_are_articulated_with_the_apical_consonant">tip_and/or_laminal_consonant">blade_ A_blade_is_the_portion_of_a__tool,__weapon,_or__machine_with_an_edge_that_is_designed_to_puncture,__chop,__slice_or__scrape_surfaces_or_materials._Blades_are_typically_made_from_materials_that_are_harder_than_those_they_are_to_be_used_on._Histor_...
_of_the_tongue._These_include_a_large_number_of_consonants,_which_can_be_made_with_the_tip,_blade_or_underside_of_the_tongue_(
tip_and/or_laminal_consonant.html"__"title="apical_consonant.html"_;"title="Coronal_consonant">CORONAL_.html"_;"title="Coronal_consonant.html"_;"title="Coronal_consonant">CORONAL_">Coronal_consonant.html"_;"title="Coronal_consonant">CORONAL_ref_name=":0"_/>_Coronal_sounds_are_articulated_with_the_apical_consonant">tip_and/or_laminal_consonant">blade_ A_blade_is_the_portion_of_a__tool,__weapon,_or__machine_with_an_edge_that_is_designed_to_puncture,__chop,__slice_or__scrape_surfaces_or_materials._Blades_are_typically_made_from_materials_that_are_harder_than_those_they_are_to_be_used_on._Histor_...
_of_the_tongue._These_include_a_large_number_of_consonants,_which_can_be_made_with_the_tip,_blade_or_underside_of_the_tongue_(apical_consonant">apical,_laminal_consonant.html" "title="apical_consonant.html" ;"title="apical_consonant">tip_and/or_laminal_consonant.html" "title="apical_consonant.html" ;"title="Coronal_consonant">CORONAL_.html" ;"title="Coronal_consonant.html" ;"title="Coronal consonant">CORONAL ">Coronal_consonant.html" ;"title="Coronal consonant">CORONAL ref name=":0" /> Coronal sounds are articulated with the apical consonant">tip and/or laminal consonant">blade A blade is the portion of a tool, weapon, or machine with an edge that is designed to puncture, chop, slice or scrape surfaces or materials. Blades are typically made from materials that are harder than those they are to be used on. Histor ...
of the tongue. These include a large number of consonants, which can be made with the tip, blade or underside of the tongue (apical consonant">apical, laminal consonant">laminal A laminal consonant is a phone (speech sound) produced by obstructing the air passage with the blade of the tongue, the flat top front surface just behind the tip of the tongue in contact with upper lip, teeth, alveolar ridge, to possibly, as ...
, or subapical consonant, respectively), making contact with the upper lip (linguolabial consonant, linguolabial), between the teeth (interdental consonant, interdental), with the back of the teeth (dental consonant, dental), with the
alveolar ridge The alveolar process () or alveolar bone is the thickened ridge of bone that contains the tooth sockets on the jaw bones (in humans, the maxilla and the mandible). The structures are covered by gums as part of the oral cavity. The synonymous ...
( alveolar), behind the alveolar ridge (
postalveolar Postalveolar or post-alveolar consonants are consonants articulated with the tongue near or touching the ''back'' of the alveolar ridge. Articulation is farther back in the mouth than the alveolar consonants, which are at the ridge itself, but n ...
), or on or in front of the
hard palate The hard palate is a thin horizontal bony plate made up of two bones of the facial skeleton, located in the roof of the mouth. The bones are the palatine process of the maxilla and the horizontal plate of palatine bone. The hard palate spans t ...
( (pre)palatal). With
postalveolar Postalveolar or post-alveolar consonants are consonants articulated with the tongue near or touching the ''back'' of the alveolar ridge. Articulation is farther back in the mouth than the alveolar consonants, which are at the ridge itself, but n ...
sibilant Sibilants are fricative consonants of higher amplitude and pitch, made by directing a stream of air with the tongue towards the teeth. Examples of sibilants are the consonants at the beginning of the English words ''sip'', ''zip'', ''ship'', and ...
s, additional tongue shapes need to be distinguished, i.e. "domed" or slightly palatalized ("hushing" or "palato-alveolar"), palatalized ( alveolopalatal), and "closed" ("hissing-hushing"). # /− anterior Anterior segments are articulated with the tip or blade of the tongue at or in front of the alveolar ridge. Dental consonants are ant postalveolar and retroflex ones are minus;ant # /− distributed For distsegments the tongue is extended for some distance in the mouth. In other words, laminal dental and postalveolar consonants are marked as dist while apical alveolar and retroflex consonants are minus;dist * DORSAL_.html"_;"title="Dorsal_consonant.html"_;"title="Dorsal_consonant">DORSAL_">Dorsal_consonant.html"_;"title="Dorsal_consonant">DORSAL_Dorsal_sounds_are_articulated_by_raising_the_dorsum_of_the_tongue._All_vowels_are_dorsal_sounds._Dorsal_consonants_include_
DORSAL_.html"_;"title="Dorsal_consonant.html"_;"title="Dorsal_consonant">DORSAL_">Dorsal_consonant.html"_;"title="Dorsal_consonant">DORSAL_Dorsal_sounds_are_articulated_by_raising_the_dorsum_of_the_tongue._All_vowels_are_dorsal_sounds._Dorsal_consonants_include_palatal_consonant">palatal,_velar_consonant.html" "title="palatal_consonant.html" ;"title="Dorsal_consonant">DORSAL_.html" ;"title="Dorsal_consonant.html" ;"title="Dorsal consonant">DORSAL ">Dorsal_consonant.html" ;"title="Dorsal consonant">DORSAL Dorsal sounds are articulated by raising the dorsum of the tongue. All vowels are dorsal sounds. Dorsal consonants include palatal consonant">palatal, velar consonant">velar Velars are consonants articulated with the back part of the tongue (the dorsum) against the soft palate, the back part of the roof of the mouth (known also as the velum). Since the velar region of the roof of the mouth is relatively extensive a ...
and uvular consonants. #[+/− high]: [+high] segments raise the dorsum close to the palate. [−high] segments do not. #[+/− low]: [+low] segments bunch the dorsum to a position low in the mouth. #[+/− back]: backsegments are produced with the tongue dorsum bunched and retracted slightly to the back of the mouth. minus;backsegments are bunched and extended slightly forward. # /− tense This feature (mainly) applies to the position of the root of the tongue when articulating vowels. tensevowels have an advanced tongue root. In fact, this feature is often referred to as
advanced tongue root In phonetics, advanced tongue root (ATR) and retracted tongue root (RTR) are contrasting states of the root of the tongue during the pronunciation of vowels in some languages, especially in Western and Eastern Africa, but also in Kazakh and M ...
(ATR), although there is a debate on whether tense and ATR are the same or different features. *
RADICAL Radical may refer to: Politics and ideology Politics * Radical politics, the political intent of fundamental societal change *Radicalism (historical), the Radical Movement that began in late 18th century Britain and spread to continental Europe an ...
] Radical sounds are articulated with the root of the tongue. These include epiglottal consonants. #[+/− advanced tongue root]: [+ATR] segments advance the root of the tongue. #[+/− retracted tongue root]: RTRsegments bunch the root of the tongue towards the pharyngeal wall and activate the
pharyngeal constrictor The pharyngeal muscles are a group of muscles that form the pharynx, which is posterior to the oral cavity, determining the shape of its lumen, and affecting its sound properties as the primary resonating cavity. The pharyngeal muscles (involunta ...
muscles * GLOTTAL_.html" ;"title="Glottal_consonant.html" ;"title="Glottal consonant">GLOTTAL ">Glottal_consonant.html" ;"title="Glottal consonant">GLOTTAL Purely glottal sounds do not involve the tongue at all. These are the glottal consonants.


Vowel space

Vowels are distinguished by #[+/− back] (
back vowel A back vowel is any in a class of vowel sound used in spoken languages. The defining characteristic of a back vowel is that the highest point of the tongue is positioned relatively back in the mouth without creating a constriction that would be c ...
s) #[+/− high] (close vowels) #[+/− low] (low vowels) #[+/− tense] (tense vowels) However, laryngoscopic studies suggest the features are # /− front(
front vowel A front vowel is a class of vowel sounds used in some spoken languages, its defining characteristic being that the highest point of the tongue is positioned as far forward as possible in the mouth without creating a constriction that would otherw ...
s) # /− raised( raised vowels) # /− retracted( retracted vowels) # /− round( round vowels)


Jakobsonian system

This system is given by .


Sonority

* /− vocalicvocalic, non-vocalic * /− consonantalconsonantal, non-consonantal * /− nasalnasal, oral * /− compactforward-flanged:
velar Velars are consonants articulated with the back part of the tongue (the dorsum) against the soft palate, the back part of the roof of the mouth (known also as the velum). Since the velar region of the roof of the mouth is relatively extensive a ...
and
palatal consonant Palatals are consonants articulated with the body of the tongue raised against the hard palate (the middle part of the roof of the mouth). Consonants with the tip of the tongue curled back against the palate are called retroflex. Characteris ...
, wide vowel * /− diffusebackward-flanged:
labial The term ''labial'' originates from '' Labium'' (Latin for "lip"), and is the adjective that describes anything of or related to lips, such as lip-like structures. Thus, it may refer to: * the lips ** In linguistics, a labial consonant ** In zoolog ...
and coronal, narrow vowel * /− abrupt* /− stridentstrident, mellow * /− checked


Protensity

* /− tense


Tonality

* /− grave
peripheral consonant In Australian linguistics, the peripheral consonants are a natural class encompassing consonants articulated at the extremes of the mouth: labials (lip) and velars (soft palate). That is, they are the non-coronal consonants ( palatal, dent ...
,
back vowel A back vowel is any in a class of vowel sound used in spoken languages. The defining characteristic of a back vowel is that the highest point of the tongue is positioned relatively back in the mouth without creating a constriction that would be c ...
* /− acute* /− medial coronal or
palatal consonant Palatals are consonants articulated with the body of the tongue raised against the hard palate (the middle part of the roof of the mouth). Consonants with the tip of the tongue curled back against the palate are called retroflex. Characteris ...
,
front vowel A front vowel is a class of vowel sounds used in some spoken languages, its defining characteristic being that the highest point of the tongue is positioned as far forward as possible in the mouth without creating a constriction that would otherw ...
* /− flatnarrowed slit, wider slit * /− sharpwidened slit, narrower slit


Other uses

The concept of a distinctive feature matrix to distinguish similar elements is identified with phonology, but there have been at least two efforts to use a distinctive feature matrix in related fields. Close to phonology, and clearly acknowledging its debt to phonology, distinctive features have been used to describe and differentiate handshapes in fingerspelling in
American Sign Language American Sign Language (ASL) is a natural language that serves as the predominant sign language of Deaf communities in the United States of America and most of Anglophone Canada. ASL is a complete and organized visual language that is expre ...
. Distinctive features have also been used to distinguish
proverb A proverb (from la, proverbium) is a simple and insightful, traditional saying that expresses a perceived truth based on common sense or experience. Proverbs are often metaphorical and use formulaic language. A proverbial phrase or a proverbia ...
s from other types of language such as slogans, clichés, and aphorisms.p. 73. Norrick, Neal. 1985. ''How Proverbs Mean: Semantic Studies in English Proverbs''. de Gruyter. Analogous feature systems are also used throughout
Natural Language Processing Natural language processing (NLP) is an interdisciplinary subfield of linguistics, computer science, and artificial intelligence concerned with the interactions between computers and human language, in particular how to program computers to proc ...
(NLP). For example, part-of-speech tagging divides words into categories. These include "major" categories such as Noun vs. Verb, but also other dimensions such as person and number, plurality, tense, and others. Some mnemonics for part-of-speech tags conjoin multiple features, such as "NN" for singular noun, vs. "NNS" for plural noun, vs. "NNS$" for plural possessive noun (see Brown Corpus). Others provide more explicit separation of features, even formalizing them via markup such as the Text Encoding Initiative's feature structures. Modern statistical NLP uses vectors of very many features, although many of those features are not formally "distinctive" in the sense described here.


See also

* Feature geometry


References


Sources

* * * * * * *{{cite book , last1=Jakobson , first1=Roman , author-link1=Roman Jakobson , last2=Halle , first2=Morris , author-link2=Morris Halle , year=1971 , title=Fundamentals of Language , publisher=Mouton , location=The Hague Phonology