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''Datura'' is a
genus Genus ( plural genera ) is a taxonomic rank used in the biological classification of living and fossil organisms as well as viruses. In the hierarchy of biological classification, genus comes above species and below family. In binomial nom ...
of nine species of highly poisonous, vespertine-
flowering plant Flowering plants are plants that bear flowers and fruits, and form the clade Angiospermae (), commonly called angiosperms. The term "angiosperm" is derived from the Greek words ('container, vessel') and ('seed'), and refers to those plants t ...
s belonging to the nightshade family Solanaceae. They are commonly known as thornapples or jimsonweeds, but are also known as devil's trumpets (not to be confused with angel's trumpets, which are placed in the closely related genus ''
Brugmansia ''Brugmansia'' is a genus of seven species of flowering plants in the nightshade family Solanaceae. They are woody trees or shrubs, with pendulous flowers, and have no spines on their fruit. Their large, fragrant flowers give them their common n ...
''). Other English common names include moonflower, devil's weed, and hell's bells. All species of ''Datura'' are extremely poisonous and potentially psychoactive, especially their seeds and flowers, which can cause
respiratory depression Hypoventilation (also known as respiratory depression) occurs when ventilation is inadequate (''hypo'' meaning "below") to perform needed respiratory gas exchange. By definition it causes an increased concentration of carbon dioxide (hypercapni ...
, arrhythmias,
fever Fever, also referred to as pyrexia, is defined as having a temperature above the normal range due to an increase in the body's temperature set point. There is not a single agreed-upon upper limit for normal temperature with sources using val ...
,
delirium Delirium (also known as acute confusional state) is an organically caused decline from a previous baseline of mental function that develops over a short period of time, typically hours to days. Delirium is a syndrome encompassing disturbances ...
, hallucinations, anticholinergic syndrome,
psychosis Psychosis is a condition of the mind that results in difficulties determining what is real and what is not real. Symptoms may include delusions and hallucinations, among other features. Additional symptoms are incoherent speech and behavi ...
, and even death if taken internally. Due to their effects and symptoms, they have occasionally been used not only as poisons, but also as
hallucinogens Hallucinogens are a large, diverse class of psychoactive drugs that can produce altered states of consciousness characterized by major alterations in thought, mood, and perception as well as other changes. Most hallucinogens can be categoriz ...
by various groups throughout history. Traditionally, psychoactive administration of ''Datura'' species has often been associated with
witchcraft Witchcraft traditionally means the use of magic or supernatural powers to harm others. A practitioner is a witch. In medieval and early modern Europe, where the term originated, accused witches were usually women who were believed to have ...
and
sorcery Sorcery may refer to: * Magic (supernatural), the application of beliefs, rituals or actions employed to subdue or manipulate natural or supernatural beings and forces ** Witchcraft, the practice of magical skills and abilities * Magic in fiction, ...
or similar practices in many cultures, including the
Western world The Western world, also known as the West, primarily refers to the various nations and states in the regions of Europe, North America, and Oceania.
.Hansen, Harold A. ''The Witch's Garden'' pub. Unity Press 1978 Certain common ''Datura'' species have also been used
ritual A ritual is a sequence of activities involving gestures, words, actions, or objects, performed according to a set sequence. Rituals may be prescribed by the traditions of a community, including a religious community. Rituals are characterized ...
istically as entheogens by some Native American groups. Non-psychoactive use of the plant is usually done for medicinal purposes, and the alkaloids present in plants of the ''Datura'' genus have long been considered
traditional medicine Traditional medicine (also known as indigenous medicine or folk medicine) comprises medical aspects of traditional knowledge that developed over generations within the folk beliefs of various societies, including indigenous peoples, before the ...
s in both the
New New is an adjective referring to something recently made, discovered, or created. New or NEW may refer to: Music * New, singer of K-pop group The Boyz Albums and EPs * ''New'' (album), by Paul McCartney, 2013 * ''New'' (EP), by Regurgitator, ...
and
Old World The "Old World" is a term for Afro-Eurasia that originated in Europe , after Europeans became aware of the existence of the Americas. It is used to contrast the continents of Africa, Europe, and Asia, which were previously thought of by thei ...
s due to the presence of the alkaloids scopolamine and
atropine Atropine is a tropane alkaloid and anticholinergic medication used to treat certain types of nerve agent and pesticide poisonings as well as some types of slow heart rate, and to decrease saliva production during surgery. It is typically given ...
, which are also produced by Old World plants such as '' Hyoscyamus niger'', ''
Atropa belladonna ''Atropa belladonna'', commonly known as belladonna or deadly nightshade, is a toxic perennial herbaceous plant in the nightshade family Solanaceae, which also includes tomatoes, potatoes, and eggplant (aubergine). It is native to Europe, ...
'', and '' Mandragora officinarum''.Schultes, Richard Evans; Hofmann, Albert (1979). The Botany and Chemistry of Hallucinogens (2nd ed.). Springfield Illinois: Charles C. Thomas.


Etymology

The
generic Generic or generics may refer to: In business * Generic term, a common name used for a range or class of similar things not protected by trademark * Generic brand, a brand for a product that does not have an associated brand or trademark, other ...
name ''Datura'' is taken from
Sanskrit Sanskrit (; attributively , ; nominally , , ) is a classical language belonging to the Indo-Aryan languages, Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European languages. It arose in South Asia after its predecessor languages had Trans-cultural diffusion ...
धतूरा ' "thorn-apple", ultimately from
Sanskrit Sanskrit (; attributively , ; nominally , , ) is a classical language belonging to the Indo-Aryan languages, Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European languages. It arose in South Asia after its predecessor languages had Trans-cultural diffusion ...
धत्तूर ' "white thorn-apple" (referring to '' Datura metel'' of Asia). In the
Ayurvedic Ayurveda () is an alternative medicine system with historical roots in the Indian subcontinent. The theory and practice of Ayurveda is pseudoscientific. Ayurveda is heavily practiced in India and Nepal, where around 80% of the population repo ...
text ''
Sushruta Samhita The ''Sushruta Samhita'' (सुश्रुतसंहिता, IAST: ''Suśrutasaṃhitā'', literally "Suśruta's Compendium") is an ancient Sanskrit text on medicine and surgery, and one of the most important such treatises on this subje ...
'', different species of ''Datura'' are also referred to as ' and '. ''Dhatura'' is offered to
Shiva Shiva (; sa, शिव, lit=The Auspicious One, Śiva ), also known as Mahadeva (; Help:IPA/Sanskrit, ɐɦaːd̪eːʋɐ, or Hara, is one of the Hindu deities, principal deities of Hinduism. He is the Supreme Being in Shaivism, one o ...
in
Hinduism Hinduism () is an Indian religion or '' dharma'', a religious and universal order or way of life by which followers abide. As a religion, it is the world's third-largest, with over 1.2–1.35 billion followers, or 15–16% of the global p ...
. Record of this name in English dates back to 1662.
Nathaniel Hawthorne Nathaniel Hawthorne (July 4, 1804 – May 19, 1864) was an American novelist and short story writer. His works often focus on history, morality, and religion. He was born in 1804 in Salem, Massachusetts, from a family long associated with that t ...
refers to one type in ''
The Scarlet Letter ''The Scarlet Letter: A Romance'' is a work of historical fiction by American author Nathaniel Hawthorne, published in 1850. Set in the Puritan Massachusetts Bay Colony during the years 1642 to 1649, the novel tells the story of Hester Prynne ...
'' as "apple-Peru". In Mexico, its common name is ''toloache''. The Mexican common name (also spelled ) derives from the
Nahuatl Nahuatl (; ), Aztec, or Mexicano is a language or, by some definitions, a group of languages of the Uto-Aztecan language family. Varieties of Nahuatl are spoken by about Nahua peoples, most of whom live mainly in Central Mexico and have small ...
, meaning "the plant with the nodding head" (in reference to the nodding seed capsules of ''Datura'' species belonging to section ''Dutra'' of the genus).


Description

''Datura'' species are
herbaceous Herbaceous plants are vascular plants that have no persistent woody stems above ground. This broad category of plants includes many perennials, and nearly all annuals and biennials. Definitions of "herb" and "herbaceous" The fourth edition o ...
, leafy annuals and short-lived perennials, which can reach up to 2 m in height. The leaves are alternate, 10–20 cm long, and 5–18 cm broad, with a lobed or toothed margin. The
flower A flower, sometimes known as a bloom or blossom, is the reproductive structure found in flowering plants (plants of the division Angiospermae). The biological function of a flower is to facilitate reproduction, usually by providing a mechanis ...
s are erect or spreading (not pendulous like those of ''
Brugmansia ''Brugmansia'' is a genus of seven species of flowering plants in the nightshade family Solanaceae. They are woody trees or shrubs, with pendulous flowers, and have no spines on their fruit. Their large, fragrant flowers give them their common n ...
''), trumpet-shaped, 5–20 cm long, and 4–12 cm broad at the mouth; colours vary from white to yellow and pale purple. The
fruit In botany, a fruit is the seed-bearing structure in flowering plants that is formed from the ovary after flowering. Fruits are the means by which flowering plants (also known as angiosperms) disseminate their seeds. Edible fruits in partic ...
is a spiny capsule, 4–10 cm long and 2–6 cm broad, splitting open when ripe to release the numerous
seed A seed is an embryonic plant enclosed in a protective outer covering, along with a food reserve. The formation of the seed is a part of the process of reproduction in seed plants, the spermatophytes, including the gymnosperm and angiosper ...
s. The seeds disperse freely over pastures, fields, and even wasteland locations. ''Datura'' belongs to the classic "witches' weeds", along with deadly nightshade, henbane, and mandrake. All parts of the plants are toxic, and the genus has a long history of use for causing delirious states and death. It was well known as an essential ingredient of magical ointments, potions, and witches' brews, most notably '' Datura stramonium''. In India, ''D. metel'' has long been regarded as a poison and aphrodisiac, having been used in
Ayurveda Ayurveda () is an alternative medicine system with historical roots in the Indian subcontinent. The theory and practice of Ayurveda is pseudoscientific. Ayurveda is heavily practiced in India and Nepal, where around 80% of the population rep ...
as a medicine since ancient times. It features in rituals and prayers to Shiva and also in
Ganesh Chaturthi Ganesh Chaturthi ( ISO: ), also known as Vinayak Chaturthi (), or Ganeshotsav () is a Hindu festival commemorating the birth of the Hindu god Ganesha. The festival is marked with the installation of Ganesha's clay idols privately in homes and ...
, a festival devoted to the deity
Ganesha Ganesha ( sa, गणेश, ), also known as Ganapati, Vinayaka, and Pillaiyar, is one of the best-known and most worshipped deities in the Hindu pantheon and is the Supreme God in Ganapatya sect. His image is found throughout India. Hindu ...
. The
larvae A larva (; plural larvae ) is a distinct juvenile form many animals undergo before metamorphosis into adults. Animals with indirect development such as insects, amphibians, or cnidarians typically have a larval phase of their life cycle. T ...
of some
Lepidoptera Lepidoptera ( ) is an order of insects that includes butterflies and moths (both are called lepidopterans). About 180,000 species of the Lepidoptera are described, in 126 families and 46 superfamilies, 10 percent of the total described speci ...
(
butterfly Butterflies are insects in the macrolepidopteran clade Rhopalocera from the order Lepidoptera, which also includes moths. Adult butterflies have large, often brightly coloured wings, and conspicuous, fluttering flight. The group compris ...
and
moth Moths are a paraphyletic group of insects that includes all members of the order Lepidoptera that are not butterflies, with moths making up the vast majority of the order. There are thought to be approximately 160,000 species of moth, many of w ...
) species, including '' Hypercompe indecisa'', eat some ''Datura'' species. It has been observed that while insects may prefer to feed on ''Datura'' leaves, other animals such as cows will generally avoid consuming them.


Species and cultivars

Classifying ''Datura'' as to its species is difficult, and the descriptions of new species often are accepted prematurely. Later, these "new species" are found to be simply varieties that have evolved due to conditions at a specific location. They usually disappear in a few years. Contributing to the confusion is the fact that various species, such as ''D. wrightii'' and ''D. inoxia'', are very similar in appearance, and the variation within a species can be extreme. For example, ''Datura'' species can change size of plant, leaf, and flowers, all depending on location. The same species, when growing in a half-shady, damp location can develop into a flowering bush half as tall as an adult human of average height, but when growing in a very dry location, will only grow into a thin plant not much more than ankle high, with tiny flowers and a few miniature leaves. ''Datura'' species are native to dry, temperate, and subtropical regions of the Americas, and are distributed mostly in Mexico, which is considered the center of origin of the genus. ''D. ferox'' was long thought native to China, ''D. metel'' to India and Southeast Asia, and ''D. leichardthii'' to Australia; however, recent research has shown these species to be early introductions from Central America. A group of South American species formerly placed in the genus ''Datura'' are now placed in the distinct genus ''
Brugmansia ''Brugmansia'' is a genus of seven species of flowering plants in the nightshade family Solanaceae. They are woody trees or shrubs, with pendulous flowers, and have no spines on their fruit. Their large, fragrant flowers give them their common n ...
'' (''Brugmansia'' differs from ''Datura'' in that it is woody (the species being
shrub A shrub (often also called a bush) is a small-to-medium-sized perennial woody plant. Unlike herbaceous plants, shrubs have persistent woody stems above the ground. Shrubs can be either deciduous or evergreen. They are distinguished from tree ...
s or small
tree In botany, a tree is a perennial plant with an elongated stem, or trunk, usually supporting branches and leaves. In some usages, the definition of a tree may be narrower, including only woody plants with secondary growth, plants that are ...
s) and has indehiscent fruits. The solanaceous tribe Datureae, to which ''Datura'' and ''Brugmansia'' belong, has recently acquired a new, monotypic genus '' Trompettia'' J. Dupin, featuring the species ''Trompettia cardenasiana'', which had hitherto been misclassified as belonging to the genus '' Iochroma''. ''Datura'' specialists, the Preissels, accept only 9 species of ''Datura'', but Kew's Plants of the World Online currently lists the following 14 (out of which the current edition of The Plant List does not list ''D. arenicola'', ''D. lanosa'', and ''D. pruinosa'' as accepted spp.): *''Datura arenicola'' Gentry ex Bye & Luna *''Datura ceratocaula'' Ortega *''Datura discolor'' Bernh. *''Datura ferox'' L. *''Datura innoxia'' Mill. *''Datura kymatocarpa'' Barclay *''Datura lanosa'' A.S.Barclay ex Bye *''Datura leichhardtii'' Benth. *''Datura metel'' L. *''Datura pruinosa'' Greenm. *''Datura quercifolia'' Kunth *''Datura reburra'' Barclay *''Datura stramonium'' L. *''Datura wrightii'' Regel Of the above, ''D. leichhardtii'' is close enough to ''D. pruinosa'' to merit demotion to a subspecies and likewise ''D. ferox'' and ''D. quercifolia'' are close enough in morphology to merit being subsumed in a single species. Furthermore, the Australian provenance of ''D. leichhardtii'', the Chinese provenance of ''D. ferox'', and the Afro-Asiatic provenance of ''D. metel'' have been cast into serious doubt, with the three species being almost certainly post-Columbian introductions to the regions to which they were originally thought native. The case of ''D. metel'' is unique in that not only is the plant not a true species at all, but an assemblage of ancient
pre-Columbian In the history of the Americas, the pre-Columbian era spans from the original settlement of North and South America in the Upper Paleolithic period through European colonization, which began with Christopher Columbus's voyage of 1492. Usually, ...
cultivar A cultivar is a type of cultivated plant that people have selected for desired traits and when propagated retain those traits. Methods used to propagate cultivars include: division, root and stem cuttings, offsets, grafting, tissue culture ...
s created from ''D. innoxia'' in the Greater Antilles, but evidence is mounting that it was introduced to the Indian subcontinent no later than the second century CE – whether by natural or human agency is, as yet, unknown – making it one of the most ancient plant introductions (if not the most ancient) from the
New World The term ''New World'' is often used to mean the majority of Earth's Western Hemisphere, specifically the Americas."America." ''The Oxford Companion to the English Language'' (). McArthur, Tom, ed., 1992. New York: Oxford University Press, p. ...
to the
Old World The "Old World" is a term for Afro-Eurasia that originated in Europe , after Europeans became aware of the existence of the Americas. It is used to contrast the continents of Africa, Europe, and Asia, which were previously thought of by thei ...
(see
Columbian Exchange The Columbian exchange, also known as the Columbian interchange, was the widespread transfer of plants, animals, precious metals, commodities, culture, human populations, technology, diseases, and ideas between the New World (the Americas) in ...
).'Datura (Solanaceae) is a New World Genus' by D.E. Symon and L. Haegi in (page 197 of) ''Solanaceae III: Taxonomy Chemistry Evolution'', Editors J.G. Hawkes, R.N. Lester, M. Nee, & N. Estrada, published by The Royal Botanic Gardens Kew, Richmond, Surrey, UK for The Linnean Society of London 1991. . Republished as: ''D. arenicola'' is a remarkable new species, described only in 2013, of very restricted range, and so distinctive as to have merited the creation for it of the new section ''Discola'' ot to be confused with the species name ''D. discolor''within the genus. The specific name ''arenicola'' means "loving (i.e. "thriving in")
sand Sand is a granular material composed of finely divided mineral particles. Sand has various compositions but is defined by its grain size. Sand grains are smaller than gravel and coarser than silt. Sand can also refer to a textural class ...
". American Brugmansia and Datura Society, Inc. (ABADS) is designated in the 2004 edition of the International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants as the official International Cultivar Registration Authority for ''Datura''. This role was delegated to ABADS by the
International Society for Horticultural Science The International Society for Horticultural Science (ISHS) is the world's leading independent organization of horticultural scientists. Its aim is "to promote and encourage research and education in all branches of horticultural science and to fa ...
in 2002.


Past classified species

* '' D. lanosa'' * '' D. suaveolens''


Cultivation

''Datura'' species are usually sown annually from the seed produced in the spiny capsules, but, with care, the tuberous-rooted perennial species may be overwintered. Most species are suited to being planted outside or in containers. As a rule, they need warm, sunny places and soil that will keep their roots dry. When grown outdoors in good locations, the plants tend to reseed themselves and may become invasive. In containers, they should have porous, aerated potting soil with adequate drainage. The plants are susceptible to fungi in the root area, so anaerobic organic enrichment such as anaerobically composted organic matter or manure, should be avoided.


Toxicity

All ''Datura'' plants contain
tropane alkaloids Tropane alkaloids are a class of bicyclic .2.1alkaloids and secondary metabolites that contain a tropane ring in their chemical structure. Tropane alkaloids occur naturally in many members of the plant family Solanaceae. Certain tropane alkalo ...
such as scopolamine and atropine, primarily in their seeds and flowers, as well as the roots of certain species such as '' D. wrightii''. Because of the presence of these substances, ''Datura'' has been used for centuries in some cultures as a
poison Poison is a chemical substance that has a detrimental effect to life. The term is used in a wide range of scientific fields and industries, where it is often specifically defined. It may also be applied colloquially or figuratively, with a broa ...
. A given plant's toxicity depends on its age, where it is growing, and the local weather conditions. These variations make ''Datura'' exceptionally hazardous as a drug. Since datura directly causes the effects of anticholinergic syndrome, the symptoms of its toxicity are often cited by the traditional mnemonic: "Blind as a bat, mad as a hatter, red as a beet, hot as a hare, dry as a bone, the bowel and bladder lose their tone, and the heart runs alone". citing J. Arena, Poisoning: Toxicology-Symptoms-Treatments, 3rd edition. Springfield, Charles C. Thomas, 1974, p 345 ''Datura'', as well as long-term psychoactive/toxic usage of other anticholinergic drugs, also appear to significantly increase the risk of developing
dementia Dementia is a disorder which manifests as a set of related symptoms, which usually surfaces when the brain is damaged by injury or disease. The symptoms involve progressive impairments in memory, thinking, and behavior, which negatively affe ...
. In traditional cultures, a great deal of experience with and detailed knowledge of ''Datura'' was critical to minimize harm. Many tragic incidents result from modern users ingesting or smoking ''Datura''. For example, in the 1990s and 2000s, the United States media reported stories of adolescents and young adults dying or becoming seriously ill from intentionally ingesting ''Datura''. Deliberate or inadvertent poisoning resulting from smoking jimsonweed and other related species has been reported as well. Although most poisonings occur with more common species of ''Datura'' such as '' D. stramonium'', several reports in the medical literature indicate deaths from ''D. ferox''
intoxication Intoxication — or poisoning, especially by an alcoholic or narcotic substance — may refer to: * Substance intoxication: ** Alcohol intoxication ** LSD intoxication ** Toxidrome ** Tobacco intoxication ** Cannabis intoxication ** Cocaine in ...
. Children are especially vulnerable to atropine poisoning. In some parts of
Europe Europe is a large peninsula conventionally considered a continent in its own right because of its great physical size and the weight of its history and traditions. Europe is also considered a Continent#Subcontinents, subcontinent of Eurasia ...
and
India India, officially the Republic of India (Hindi: ), is a country in South Asia. It is the List of countries and dependencies by area, seventh-largest country by area, the List of countries and dependencies by population, second-most populous ...
, ''Datura'' has been a popular
poison Poison is a chemical substance that has a detrimental effect to life. The term is used in a wide range of scientific fields and industries, where it is often specifically defined. It may also be applied colloquially or figuratively, with a broa ...
for
suicide Suicide is the act of intentionally causing one's own death. Mental disorders (including depression, bipolar disorder, schizophrenia, personality disorders, anxiety disorders), physical disorders (such as chronic fatigue syndrome), and ...
and
murder Murder is the unlawful killing of another human without justification or valid excuse, especially the unlawful killing of another human with malice aforethought. ("The killing of another person without justification or excuse, especially the ...
. From 1950 to 1965, the State Chemical Laboratories in
Agra Agra (, ) is a city on the banks of the Yamuna river in the Indian state of Uttar Pradesh, about south-east of the national capital New Delhi and 330 km west of the state capital Lucknow. With a population of roughly 1.6 million, Agra ...
, India, investigated 2,778 deaths caused by ingesting ''Datura.'' A group called Thugs ''(practicers of thuggee)'' were reportedly devotees of an Indian religious cult made up of robbers and assassins who strangled or poisoned their victims in
ritual A ritual is a sequence of activities involving gestures, words, actions, or objects, performed according to a set sequence. Rituals may be prescribed by the traditions of a community, including a religious community. Rituals are characterized ...
s devoted to the Hindu goddess
Kali Kali (; sa, काली, ), also referred to as Mahakali, Bhadrakali, and Kalika ( sa, कालिका), is a Hindu goddess who is considered to be the goddess of ultimate power, time, destruction and change in Shaktism. In this tra ...
. They were alleged to employ ''Datura'' in many such poisonings, using it also to induce drowsiness or stupefaction, making strangulation easier. Dash, Mike ''Thug: the true story of India's murderous cult'' , 2005 ''Datura'' toxins may be ingested accidentally by consumption of
honey Honey is a sweet and viscous substance made by several bees, the best-known of which are honey bees. Honey is made and stored to nourish bee colonies. Bees produce honey by gathering and then refining the sugary secretions of plants (primar ...
produced by several wasp species, including ''
Brachygastra lecheguana ''Brachygastra lecheguana'' (Latreille 1824), formerly known as ''Nectarina lecheguana'',Bequaert, J. Q. (1932). "The Nearctic social wasps of the subfamily polybiinae (Hymenoptera; Vespidae)". ''Entomologica Americana''. 13 (3): 87-150. is a spe ...
'', during the ''Datura'' blooming season. These semi-domesticated honey wasps apparently collect ''Datura'' nectar for honey production, which can lead to poisoning. The U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention reported accidental poisoning resulting in hospitalization for a family of six who inadvertently ingested ''Datura'' used as an ingredient in stew. In some places, buying, selling, or cultivating ''Datura'' plants is prohibited. Solanaceous tribes with a similar chemistry (i.e. a similar tropane alkaloid content), include the Hyoscyameae, containing such well-known toxic species as '' Hyoscyamus niger'' and ''
Atropa belladonna ''Atropa belladonna'', commonly known as belladonna or deadly nightshade, is a toxic perennial herbaceous plant in the nightshade family Solanaceae, which also includes tomatoes, potatoes, and eggplant (aubergine). It is native to Europe, ...
'', the Solandreae containing the genus ''
Solandra ''Solandra'' is a genus of flowering plants in the nightshade family, Solanaceae. It is named after the Swedish naturalist Daniel C. Solander. The vines it contains are commonly known as chalice vines and are native to the Caribbean, Mexico an ...
'' ("chalice vines") and the Mandragoreae, named for the famous '' Mandragora officinarum'', most of which are considered traditional witches' herbs and poisons.


Effects of ingestion

''Datura'' is considered a deliriant. Due to the potent combination of anticholinergic substances it contains, ''Datura''
intoxication Intoxication — or poisoning, especially by an alcoholic or narcotic substance — may refer to: * Substance intoxication: ** Alcohol intoxication ** LSD intoxication ** Toxidrome ** Tobacco intoxication ** Cannabis intoxication ** Cocaine in ...
typically produces the effects of anticholinergic
delirium Delirium (also known as acute confusional state) is an organically caused decline from a previous baseline of mental function that develops over a short period of time, typically hours to days. Delirium is a syndrome encompassing disturbances ...
(usually involving a complete or relative inability to differentiate
reality Reality is the sum or aggregate of all that is real or existent within a system, as opposed to that which is only imaginary. The term is also used to refer to the ontological status of things, indicating their existence. In physical terms, re ...
from
fantasy Fantasy is a genre of speculative fiction involving magical elements, typically set in a fictional universe and sometimes inspired by mythology and folklore. Its roots are in oral traditions, which then became fantasy literature and d ...
); bizarre thoughts,
hyperthermia Hyperthermia, also known simply as overheating, is a condition in which an individual's body temperature is elevated beyond normal due to failed thermoregulation. The person's body produces or absorbs more heat than it dissipates. When extrem ...
;
tachycardia Tachycardia, also called tachyarrhythmia, is a heart rate that exceeds the normal resting rate. In general, a resting heart rate over 100 beats per minute is accepted as tachycardia in adults. Heart rates above the resting rate may be normal ( ...
; bizarre, and possibly violent behavior; dry skin; dry mouth; illusions; and severe mydriasis (dilated pupils) with resultant painful photophobia that can last several days. Muscle stiffness, urinary retention, temporary paralysis,
disrobing Nudity is the state of being in which a human is without clothing. The loss of body hair was one of the physical characteristics that marked the biological evolution of modern humans from their hominin ancestors. Adaptations related to h ...
, emotional bluntness, dysphoria, and confusion are often reported, and pronounced
amnesia Amnesia is a deficit in memory caused by brain damage or disease,Gazzaniga, M., Ivry, R., & Mangun, G. (2009) Cognitive Neuroscience: The biology of the mind. New York: W.W. Norton & Company. but it can also be caused temporarily by the use ...
is another commonly reported effect. The psychoactive alkaloids scopolamine and atropine are also both known for their characteristic hyperactive effects and ability to cause stark and dream-like hallucinations. The onset of symptoms generally occurs around 30 to 60 minutes after ingesting the herb. These symptoms generally last from 24 to 48 hours, but have been reported in some cases to last two weeks or longer.


Treatment

Due to their agitated behavior and confused mental state, people with acute ''Datura'' poisoning or intoxication are typically hospitalized.
Gastric lavage Gastric lavage, also commonly called stomach pumping or gastric irrigation, is the process of cleaning out the contents of the stomach. Since its first recorded use in early 19th century, it has become one of the most routine means of eliminating p ...
and the administration of
activated charcoal "Activated" is a song by English singer Cher Lloyd. It was released on 22 July 2016 through Vixen Records. The song was made available to stream exclusively on ''Rolling Stone'' a day before to release (on 21 July 2016). Background In an inter ...
can be used to reduce the stomach's absorption of the ingested material, and the drug physostigmine is used to reverse the effect of the poisons.
Benzodiazepines Benzodiazepines (BZD, BDZ, BZs), sometimes called "benzos", are a class of depressant drugs whose core chemical structure is the fusion of a benzene ring and a diazepine ring. They are prescribed to treat conditions such as anxiety disorders, ...
can be given to calm the patient's agitation, and supportive care with oxygen, hydration, and symptomatic treatment is often provided. Observation of the patient is indicated until the symptoms resolve, usually from 24 to 36 hours after ingestion of the ''Datura''.


Psychoactive use

In ''Pharmacology and Abuse of Cocaine, Amphetamines, Ecstasy and Related Designer Drugs'', Freye asserts: Few substances have received as many severely negative recreational experience reports as has ''Datura''. The overwhelming majority of those who describe their use of ''Datura'' find their experiences extremely unpleasant; both mentally and often physically dangerous. However, anthropologists have found that indigenous groups, with a great deal of experience with and detailed knowledge of ''Datura'', have been known to use ''Datura'' spiritually (including the
Navajo The Navajo (; British English: Navaho; nv, Diné or ') are a Native Americans in the United States, Native American people of the Southwestern United States. With more than 399,494 enrolled tribal members , the Navajo Nation is the largest fe ...
and especially the Havasupai). Adequate knowledge of ''Datura'' properties is necessary to facilitate a safe experience. The ancient inhabitants of what became central and southern
California California is a state in the Western United States, located along the Pacific Coast. With nearly 39.2million residents across a total area of approximately , it is the most populous U.S. state and the 3rd largest by area. It is also the m ...
used to ingest ''datura'' to "commune with
deities A deity or god is a supernatural being who is considered divine or sacred. The ''Oxford Dictionary of English'' defines deity as a god or goddess, or anything revered as divine. C. Scott Littleton defines a deity as "a being with powers greater ...
through visions". The
Southern Paiute The Southern Paiute people are a tribe of Native Americans who have lived in the Colorado River basin of southern Nevada, northern Arizona, and southern Utah. Bands of Southern Paiute live in scattered locations throughout this territory and ha ...
believe ''Datura'' can help locate missing objects. In ancient Mexico, ''Datura'' also played an important role in the religion of the Aztecs and the practices of their medicine men and necromancers. It was reportedly used by the Aztecs for ritual sacrifice and malevolent purposes as well. In modern-day
Mexico Mexico (Spanish language, Spanish: México), officially the United Mexican States, is a List of sovereign states, country in the southern portion of North America. It is borders of Mexico, bordered to the north by the United States; to the so ...
, some datura species are still used for sorcery and other
occult The occult, in the broadest sense, is a category of esoteric supernatural beliefs and practices which generally fall outside the scope of religion and science, encompassing phenomena involving otherworldly agency, such as magic and mysticism a ...
practices, mostly in the southern region of
Veracruz Veracruz (), formally Veracruz de Ignacio de la Llave (), officially the Free and Sovereign State of Veracruz de Ignacio de la Llave ( es, Estado Libre y Soberano de Veracruz de Ignacio de la Llave), is one of the 31 states which, along with Me ...
, specifically in the city of
Catemaco Catemaco () is a city in Catemaco Municipality located in the south of the Mexican state of Veracruz. The city is located on Lake Catemaco, with the municipality stretching north to the Gulf of Mexico. Catemaco is a tourist destination, with its ...
. Bernardino de Sahagún, in around 1569, called attention to ''Datura'' in these words: "It is administered in potions in order to cause harm to those who are objects of hatred. Those who eat it have visions of fearful things. Magicians or those who wish to harm someone administer it in food or drink. This herb is medicinal and its seed is used as a remedy for gout, ground up and applied to the part affected." Christian Rätsch has said, "A mild dosage produces medicinal and healing effects, a moderate dosage produces aphrodisiac effects, and high dosages are used for shamanic purposes". Wade Davis, an ethnobotanist, also lists it as an essential ingredient of Haitian zombie potion. In
Western culture Leonardo da Vinci's ''Vitruvian Man''. Based on the correlations of ideal Body proportions">human proportions with geometry described by the ancient Roman architect Vitruvius in Book III of his treatise ''De architectura''. image:Plato Pio-Cle ...
, the same species ('' Datura stramonium'') has been said to have been commonly used by witches as an ingredient for their flying ointments and was regularly included in detailed recipes of magical ointments dating back as far as the early modern period, predominately in
New England New England is a region comprising six states in the Northeastern United States: Connecticut, Maine, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Rhode Island, and Vermont. It is bordered by the state of New York to the west and by the Canadian provinces ...
and
Western Europe Western Europe is the western region of Europe. The region's countries and territories vary depending on context. The concept of "the West" appeared in Europe in juxtaposition to "the East" and originally applied to the ancient Mediterranean ...
. During the anti-witchcraft hysteria of colonial times it was considered unlucky or inappropriate to grow ''D. stramonium'' in one's garden due to its supposed reputation for aiding in incantations.


In popular culture

* The use of ''Datura'', under its old English name of ''Dewtry'', in relation to witchcraft, is referred to in Part 3, Canto 1 of
Hudibras ''Hudibras'' is a vigorous satirical poem, written in a mock-heroic style by Samuel Butler (1613–1680), and published in three parts in 1663, 1664 and 1678. The action is set in the last years of the Interregnum, around 1658–60, immediatel ...
, a satirical poem by Samuel Butler (1613–1680) *Plants of the ''Datura'' genus have been famously depicted in certain works of art such as that of Georgia O'Keeffe (1887–1986). *The genus has been featured in a handful of films, series and books, usually under the name 'jimsonweed'. *''Datura'' was mentioned as a formidable psychoactive
drug A drug is any chemical substance that causes a change in an organism's physiology or psychology when consumed. Drugs are typically distinguished from food and substances that provide nutritional support. Consumption of drugs can be via inhala ...
in Hunter S. Thompson's 1971 novel '' Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas: A Savage Journey to the Heart of the American Dream'' where character Dr. Gonzo recounts a prior encounter with the substance during Christmas of the previous year where he was likely gifted the ''
Datura wrightii ''Datura wrightii'', commonly known as sacred datura, is a poisonous perennial plant species and ornamental flower of the family Solanaceae native to the Southwestern United States and northwestern Mexico. It is sometimes used as a halluci ...
'' species of
Southern California Southern California (commonly shortened to SoCal) is a geographic and cultural region that generally comprises the southern portion of the U.S. state of California. It includes the Los Angeles metropolitan area, the second most populous urban ...
. *Namesake for the song "Datura" on
Tori Amos Tori Amos (born Myra Ellen Amos; August 22, 1963) is an American singer-songwriter and pianist. She is a classically trained musician with a mezzo-soprano vocal range. Having already begun composing instrumental pieces on piano, Amos won a full ...
's 1999 album ''
To Venus and Back ''To Venus and Back'' is a double album by American singer, songwriter and pianist Tori Amos. Released on September 21, 1999, it comprises her fifth studio album and first live album. The first disc, entitled ''Venus: Orbiting'', shows Amos inc ...
''. *The song "Paegan Love Song" from Acid Bath's 1996 album '' Paegan Terrorism Tactics'' is about a ''Datura'' trip. *"Datura Stramonium" is the name of an instrumental track by MF DOOM which served as the beat for the Joey Bada$$ song "World Domination." The instrumental samples transition music from the 1977 ''Fat Albert Halloween Special'' *''Jimsonweed'' is secretly given to a character in season 10, episode 13 of The Walking Dead (2020). She proceeds to have several severely distressing, delirious hallucinations. *A man killed his best friend after they both drank ''jimsonweed'' tea in the fifth episode of the series
CSI: Crime Scene Investigation ''CSI: Crime Scene Investigation'', also referred to as ''CSI'' and ''CSI: Las Vegas'', is an American procedural forensics crime drama television series that ran on CBS from October 6, 2000, to September 27, 2015, spanning 15 seasons. This wa ...
called "Friends and Lovers" (2000). * In ''Around the World in 80 Days'' (2021 TV series), the adventurer
Phileas Fogg Phileas Fogg () is the protagonist in the 1872 Jules Verne novel ''Around the World in Eighty Days''. Inspirations for the character were the American entrepreneur George Francis Train and American writer and adventurer William Perry Fogg. ...
suffers severe poisoning by ''Datura''. * The ancient peoples depicted in ''The Clan of The Cave Bear'' use ''Datura'' / Thorn Apple as part of their most sacred religious rituals to induce visions in an effort to become closer to their deities. The proper way to prepare the plant safely is known only by the Medicine Woman of the highest ranking Clan and passed on from mother to daughter. * ''Datura'' features in
Léo Delibes Clément Philibert Léo Delibes (; 21 February 1836 – 16 January 1891) was a French Romantic composer, best known for his ballets and operas. His works include the ballets ''Coppélia'' (1870) and '' Sylvia'' (1876) and the opera ''Lakm� ...
's famous opera, '' Lakmé'', which contains the Flower Duet. The Brahmin priestess, Lakmé, ingests ''Datura'' leaves in order to commit suicide after being abandoned by her lover Gérald. * In ''Shine or Go Crazy'' (2015 South Korean TV series), the king Wang Tae gradually suffers ''Datura'' poisoning from inhaling powder spread on petition letters. * In "Choomah Island 3: Denouement" (the finale of Season 4 of ''
The Big Lez Show ''The Big Lez Show'' is an Australian comedy web series created by Jarrad Wright, Tom Hollis and Izak Whear. The show originally premiered on YouTube on 16 July 2012 and concluded on 26 January 2019. The show follows Big Lez, a humanoid alie ...
''), Big Lez eats 5 ''Datura'' flowers and hallucinates being in a desert talking to a mysterious man. He is found naked and screaming by the side of the railroad tracks by Sassy and the gang before being informed of the flowers hallucinogenic qualities. * In the ''Honest Hearts'' expansion for ''Fallout: New Vegas'' (2010 video game), the player may collect ''Datura'' (labeled in-game as "Sacred datura root") while exploring Zion Canyon. The ''Datura'' can be given to a shaman who uses it to brew a tea. Upon drinking the tea, the player begins to hallucinate and must battle their hallucinations to regain their senses. * The British rock band from Blackpool, Boston Manor entitled their 2022 4th studio album and title track, Datura.


Gallery

File:Datura stramonium RF.jpg, ''D. stramonium'' (lateral view) near Frankfurt, Hesse, Germany File:Datura Stramonium, Twentynine Palms California.JPG , ''D. wrightii'' in bloom (lateral view) near Twentynine Palms, California, U.S. File:Datura Flower on the plant (Lateral View) near Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh, India 01.jpg, ''Datura'' flower on the plant (lateral view) near Hyderabad, Telangana, India File:Datura Flower on the plant (Top View) near Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh, India 02.jpg, ''Datura'' flower on the plant (top view) near Hyderabad, Telangana, India


See also

* Scopolamine *
Anticholinergics Anticholinergics (anticholinergic agents) are substances that block the action of the neurotransmitter called acetylcholine (ACh) at synapses in the central and peripheral nervous system. These agents inhibit the parasympathetic nervous sys ...
* Antimuscarinic * Psychoactive plant


References


External links

*


Further reading

* * on eMedicine * * {{Taxonbar, from=Q192497 Deliriants Entheogens Herbal and fungal hallucinogens Oneirogens Solanaceae genera Poisonous plants