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Cyc (pronounced ) is a long-term
artificial intelligence Artificial intelligence (AI) is intelligence—perceiving, synthesizing, and inferring information—demonstrated by machines, as opposed to intelligence displayed by animals and humans. Example tasks in which this is done include speech r ...
project that aims to assemble a comprehensive
ontology In metaphysics, ontology is the philosophical study of being, as well as related concepts such as existence, becoming, and reality. Ontology addresses questions like how entities are grouped into categories and which of these entities e ...
and
knowledge base A knowledge base (KB) is a technology used to store complex structured and unstructured information used by a computer system. The initial use of the term was in connection with expert systems, which were the first knowledge-based systems. ...
that spans the basic concepts and rules about how the world works. Hoping to capture common sense knowledge, Cyc focuses on
implicit knowledge Tacit knowledge or implicit knowledge—as opposed to formal, codified or explicit knowledge—is knowledge that is difficult to express or extract, and thus more difficult to transfer to others by means of writing it down or verbalizing it. Thi ...
that other AI platforms may take for granted. This is contrasted with facts one might find somewhere on the internet or retrieve via a search engine or Wikipedia. Cyc enables semantic reasoners to perform human-like reasoning and be less "brittle" when confronted with novel situations. Douglas Lenat began the project in July 1984 at MCC, where he was Principal Scientist 1984–1994, and then, since January 1995, has been under active development by the Cycorp company, where he is the
CEO A chief executive officer (CEO), also known as a central executive officer (CEO), chief administrator officer (CAO) or just chief executive (CE), is one of a number of corporate executives charged with the management of an organization especiall ...
.


Overview

The need for a massive symbolic artificial intelligence project of this kind was born in the early 1980s. Early AI researchers had ample experience over the previous 25 years with AI programs that would generate encouraging early results but then fail to "scale up"—move beyond the 'training set' to tackle a broader range of cases. Douglas Lenat and
Alan Kay Alan Curtis Kay (born May 17, 1940) published by the Association for Computing Machinery 2012 is an American computer scientist best known for his pioneering work on object-oriented programming and windowing graphical user interface (GUI) ...
publicized this need, and they organized a meeting at Stanford in 1983 to address the problem. The back-of-the-envelope calculations by Lenat, Kay, and their colleagues (including
Marvin Minsky Marvin Lee Minsky (August 9, 1927 – January 24, 2016) was an American cognitive and computer scientist concerned largely with research of artificial intelligence (AI), co-founder of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology's AI laboratory, an ...
,
Allen Newell Allen Newell (March 19, 1927 – July 19, 1992) was a researcher in computer science and cognitive psychology at the RAND Corporation and at Carnegie Mellon University’s School of Computer Science, Tepper School of Business, and Department ...
,
Edward Feigenbaum Edward Albert Feigenbaum (born January 20, 1936) is a computer scientist working in the field of artificial intelligence, and joint winner of the 1994 ACM Turing Award. He is often called the "father of expert systems." Education and early life ...
, and John McCarthy) indicated that that effort would require between 1000 and 3000 person-years of effort, far beyond the standard academic project model. However, events within a year of that meeting enabled an effort of that scale to get underway. The project began in July 1984 as the flagship project of the 400-person
Microelectronics and Computer Technology Corporation Microelectronics and Computer Technology Corporation, originally the Microelectronics and Computer Consortium and widely seen as the acronym MCC, was the first, and at one time one of the largest, computer industry research and development co ...
(MCC), a research consortium started by two dozen large United States based corporations "to counter a then ominous Japanese effort in AI, the so-called " fifth-generation" project." The US Government reacted to the Fifth Generation threat by passing the National Cooperative Research Act of 1984, which for the first time allowed US companies to "collude" on long-term high-risk high-payoff research, and MCC and
Sematech SEMATECH (from Semiconductor Manufacturing Technology) is a not-for-profit consortium that performs research and development to advance chip manufacturing. SEMATECH has broad engagement with various sectors of the R&D community, including chipma ...
sprang up to take advantage of that ten-year opportunity. MCC's first President and CEO was Bobby Ray Inman, former NSA Director and Central Intelligence Agency deputy director. The objective of the Cyc project was to codify, in machine-usable form, the millions of pieces of knowledge that compose human common sense. This entailed, along the way, (1) developing an adequately expressive representation language,
CycL CycL in computer science and artificial intelligence is an ontology language used by Doug Lenat's Cyc artificial intelligence project. Ramanathan V. Guha was instrumental in the design of early versions of the language. There is a close var ...
, (2) developing an ontology spanning all human concepts down to some appropriate level of detail, (3) developing a knowledge base on that ontological framework, comprising all human knowledge about those concepts down to some appropriate level of detail, and (4) developing an inference engine exponentially faster than those used in then-conventional expert systems, to be able to infer the same types and depth of conclusions that humans are capable of, given their knowledge of the world. In slightly more detail: * The CycL representation language started as an extension of RLL (the so-called Representation Language Language, developed in 1979–1980 by Lenat and his graduate student Russell Greiner while at Stanford University), but within a few years of the launch of the Cyc project it became clear that even representing a typical news story or novel or advertisement would require more than the expressive power of full
first-order logic First-order logic—also known as predicate logic, quantificational logic, and first-order predicate calculus—is a collection of formal systems used in mathematics, philosophy, linguistics, and computer science. First-order logic uses quant ...
, namely second-order predicate calculus ("What is the relationship between rain and water?") and then even higher-level orders of logic including
modal logic Modal logic is a collection of formal systems developed to represent statements about necessity and possibility. It plays a major role in philosophy of language, epistemology, metaphysics, and natural language semantics. Modal logics extend other ...
, reflection (enabling the system to reason about its progress so far, on a problem on which it's working), and context logic (enabling the system to reason explicitly about the contexts in which its various premises and conclusions might hold),
non-monotonic logic A non-monotonic logic is a formal logic whose conclusion relation is not monotonic. In other words, non-monotonic logics are devised to capture and represent defeasible inferences (cf. defeasible reasoning), i.e., a kind of inference in which r ...
, and circumscription. By 1989, CycL had expanded in expressive power to
higher-order logic mathematics and logic, a higher-order logic is a form of predicate logic that is distinguished from first-order logic by additional quantifiers and, sometimes, stronger semantics. Higher-order logics with their standard semantics are more express ...
(HOL). **
Triplestore A triplestore or RDF store is a purpose-built database for the storage and retrieval of triples through semantic queries. A triple is a data entity composed of subject–predicate–object, like "Bob is 35" or "Bob knows Fred". Much like a relat ...
representations (which are akin to the Frame -and-slot representation languages of the 1970s from which RLL sprang) are widespread today in AI. It may be useful to cite a few examples that stress or break that type of representation, typical of the examples that forced the Cyc project to move from a triplestore representation to a much more expressive one during the period 1984–1989: English sentences including negations ("Fred does not own a dog"), nested quantifiers ("Every American has a mother" means for-all x there-exists y... but "Every American has a President" means there-exists y such that for-all x...), nested modals such as "The United States believes that Germany wants NATO to avoid pursuing..." and it's even awkward to represent, in a
Triplestore A triplestore or RDF store is a purpose-built database for the storage and retrieval of triples through semantic queries. A triple is a data entity composed of subject–predicate–object, like "Bob is 35" or "Bob knows Fred". Much like a relat ...
, relationships of arity higher than 2, such as "Los Angeles is between San Diego and San Francisco along US101." * Cyc's ontology grew to about 100,000 terms during the first decade of the project, to 1994, and as of 2017 contained about 1,500,000 terms. This ontology included: ** 416,000 collections (types, sorts,
natural kind "Natural kind" is an intellectual grouping, or categorizing of things, in a manner that is reflective of the actual world and not just human interests. Some treat it as a classification identifying some structure of truth and reality that exists wh ...
s, which includes both types of things such as Fish and types of actions such as Fishing) ** a little over a million individuals representing *** 42,500 predicates (relations, attributes, fields, properties, functions), *** about a million generally well known entities such as TheUnitedStatesOfAmerica, BarackObama, TheSigningOfTheUSDeclarationOfIndependence, etc. *** An arbitrarily large number of additional terms are also ''implicitly'' present in the Cyc ontology, in the sense that there are term-denoting functions such as CalendarYearFn (when given the argument 2016, it denotes the calendar year 2016), GovernmentFn (when given the argument France it denotes the government of France), Meter (when given the argument 2016, it denotes a distance of 2.016 kilometers), and nestings and compositions of such function-denoting terms. * The Cyc knowledge base of general common-sense rules and assertions involving those ontological terms was largely created by hand axiom-writing; it grew to about 1 million in 1994, and as of 2017 is about 24.5 million and has taken well over 1,000 person-years of effort to construct. ** It is important to understand that the Cyc ontological engineers strive to keep those numbers as ''small'' as possible, not inflate them, so long as the ''
deductive closure In mathematical logic, a set of logical formulae is deductively closed if it contains every formula that can be logically deduced from , formally: if always implies . If is a set of formulae, the deductive closure of is its smallest superse ...
'' of the knowledge base isn't reduced. Suppose Cyc is told about one billion individual people, animals, etc. Then it could be told 1018 facts of the form "Mickey Mouse is not the same individual as ". But instead of that, one could tell Cyc 10,000
Linnaean taxonomy Linnaean taxonomy can mean either of two related concepts: # The particular form of biological classification (taxonomy) set up by Carl Linnaeus, as set forth in his ''Systema Naturae'' (1735) and subsequent works. In the taxonomy of Linnaeus t ...
rules followed by just 108 rules of the form "No mouse is a moose". And even more compactly, Cyc could instead just be given those 10,000 Linnaean taxonomy rules followed by just one rule of the form "For any two Linnaean taxons, if neither is explicitly known to be a supertaxon of the other, then they are disjoint". Those 10,001 assertions have the same deductive closure as the earlier-mentioned 1018 facts. * The Cyc inference engine design separates the epistemological problem (what content should be in the Cyc KB) from the heuristic problem (how Cyc could efficiently infer arguments hundreds of steps deep, in a sea of tens of millions of axioms). To do the former, the CycL language and well-understood logical inference might suffice. For the latter, Cyc used a community-of-agents architecture, where specialized reasoning modules, each with its own data structure and algorithm, "raised their hand" if they could efficiently make progress on any of the currently open sub-problems. By 1994 there were 20 such heuristic level (HL) modules; as of 2017 there are over 1,050 HL modules. ** Some of these HL modules are very general, such as a module that caches the
Kleene Star In mathematical logic and computer science, the Kleene star (or Kleene operator or Kleene closure) is a unary operation, either on sets of strings or on sets of symbols or characters. In mathematics, it is more commonly known as the free monoi ...
(
transitive closure In mathematics, the transitive closure of a binary relation on a set is the smallest relation on that contains and is transitive. For finite sets, "smallest" can be taken in its usual sense, of having the fewest related pairs; for infinite ...
) of all the commonly-used
transitive relation In mathematics, a relation on a set is transitive if, for all elements , , in , whenever relates to and to , then also relates to . Each partial order as well as each equivalence relation needs to be transitive. Definition A homo ...
s in Cyc's ontology. ** Some are domain-specific, such as a chemical equation-balancer. These can be and often are an "escape" to (pointer to) some externally available program or webservice or online database, such as a module to quickly "compute" the current population of a city by knowing where/how to look that up.
CycL CycL in computer science and artificial intelligence is an ontology language used by Doug Lenat's Cyc artificial intelligence project. Ramanathan V. Guha was instrumental in the design of early versions of the language. There is a close var ...
has a publicly released specification and dozens of HL modules were described in Lenat and Guha's textbook, but the actual Cyc inference engine code, and the full list of 1000+ HL modules, is Cycorp-proprietary. The name "Cyc" (from "encyclopedia", pronounced , like "''syke''") is a registered trademark owned by Cycorp. Access to Cyc is through paid licenses, but ''bona fide'' AI research groups are given research-only no-cost licenses (cf. ResearchCyc); as of 2017, over 600 such groups worldwide have these licenses. Typical pieces of knowledge represented in the Cyc knowledge base are "Every tree is a plant" and "Plants die eventually". When asked whether trees die, the inference engine can draw the obvious conclusion and answer the question correctly. Most of Cyc's knowledge, outside math, is only true by default. For example, Cyc knows that ''as a default'' parents love their children, when you're made happy you smile, taking your first step is a big accomplishment, when someone you love has a big accomplishment that makes you happy, and only adults have children. When asked whether a picture captioned "Someone watching his daughter take her first step" contains a smiling adult person, Cyc can logically infer that the answer is ''Yes'', and "show its work" by presenting the step by step logical argument using those five pieces of knowledge from its knowledge base. These are formulated in the language
CycL CycL in computer science and artificial intelligence is an ontology language used by Doug Lenat's Cyc artificial intelligence project. Ramanathan V. Guha was instrumental in the design of early versions of the language. There is a close var ...
, which is based on
predicate calculus Predicate or predication may refer to: * Predicate (grammar), in linguistics * Predication (philosophy) * several closely related uses in mathematics and formal logic: **Predicate (mathematical logic) **Propositional function **Finitary relation, o ...
and has a
syntax In linguistics, syntax () is the study of how words and morphemes combine to form larger units such as phrases and sentences. Central concerns of syntax include word order, grammatical relations, hierarchical sentence structure ( constituenc ...
similar to that of the
Lisp programming language Lisp (historically LISP) is a family of programming languages with a long history and a distinctive, fully parenthesized prefix notation. Originally specified in 1960, Lisp is the second-oldest high-level programming language still in common ...
. In 2008, Cyc resources were mapped to many
Wikipedia Wikipedia is a Multilingualism, multilingual free online encyclopedia written and maintained by a community of online volunteering, volunteers, known as Wikipedians, through open collaboration and using a wiki-based editing system. Wikipedia ...
articles. Cyc is presently connected to
Wikidata Wikidata is a collaboratively edited multilingual knowledge graph hosted by the Wikimedia Foundation. It is a common source of open data that Wikimedia projects such as Wikipedia, and anyone else, can use under the CC0 public domain license ...
. Future plans may connect Cyc to both
DBpedia DBpedia (from "DB" for " database") is a project aiming to extract structured content from the information created in the Wikipedia project. This structured information is made available on the World Wide Web. DBpedia allows users to semanti ...
and Freebase. Much of the current work Cyc continues to be
knowledge engineering Knowledge engineering (KE) refers to all technical, scientific and social aspects involved in building, maintaining and using knowledge-based systems. Background Expert systems One of the first examples of an expert system was MYCIN, an appl ...
, representing facts about the world by hand, and implementing efficient inference mechanisms on that knowledge. Increasingly, however, work at Cycorp involves giving the Cyc system the ability to communicate with end users in
natural language In neuropsychology, linguistics, and philosophy of language, a natural language or ordinary language is any language that has evolved naturally in humans through use and repetition without conscious planning or premeditation. Natural languages ...
, and to assist with the ongoing knowledge formation process via
machine learning Machine learning (ML) is a field of inquiry devoted to understanding and building methods that 'learn', that is, methods that leverage data to improve performance on some set of tasks. It is seen as a part of artificial intelligence. Machin ...
and
natural-language understanding Natural-language understanding (NLU) or natural-language interpretation (NLI) is a subtopic of natural-language processing in artificial intelligence that deals with machine reading comprehension. Natural-language understanding is considered an ...
. Another large effort at Cycorp is building a suite of Cyc-powered ontological engineering tools to lower the bar to entry for individuals to contribute to, edit, browse, and query Cyc. Like many companies, Cycorp has ambitions to use Cyc's
natural-language processing Natural language processing (NLP) is an interdisciplinary subfield of linguistics, computer science, and artificial intelligence concerned with the interactions between computers and human language, in particular how to program computers to pro ...
to parse the entire internet to extract structured data; unlike all others, it is able to call on the Cyc system itself to act as an inductive bias and as an adjudicator of
ambiguity Ambiguity is the type of meaning in which a phrase, statement or resolution is not explicitly defined, making several interpretations plausible. A common aspect of ambiguity is uncertainty. It is thus an attribute of any idea or statement ...
,
metaphor A metaphor is a figure of speech that, for rhetorical effect, directly refers to one thing by mentioning another. It may provide (or obscure) clarity or identify hidden similarities between two different ideas. Metaphors are often compared wi ...
, and
ellipsis The ellipsis (, also known informally as dot dot dot) is a series of dots that indicates an intentional omission of a word, sentence, or whole section from a text without altering its original meaning. The plural is ellipses. The term origin ...
. There are few, if any, systematic benchmark studies of Cyc's performance.


Knowledge base

The concept names in Cyc are CycL ''terms'' or ''constants''. Constants start with an optional "#$" and are case-sensitive. There are constants for: * Individual items known as ''individuals'', such as #$BillClinton or #$France. * ''Collections'', such as #$Tree-ThePlant (containing all trees) or #$EquivalenceRelation (containing all
equivalence relation In mathematics, an equivalence relation is a binary relation that is reflexive, symmetric and transitive. The equipollence relation between line segments in geometry is a common example of an equivalence relation. Each equivalence relatio ...
s). A member of a collection is called an ''instance'' of that collection. * ''Functions'', which produce new terms from given ones. For example, #$FruitFn, when provided with an argument describing a type (or collection) of plants, will return the collection of its fruits. By convention, function constants start with an upper-case letter and end with the string "Fn". * ''Truth functions'', which can apply to one or more other concepts and return either true or false. For example, #$siblings is the sibling relationship, true if the two arguments are siblings. By convention, truth function constants start with a lower-case letter. Truth functions may be broken down into logical connectives (such as #$and, #$or, #$not, #$implies), quantifiers (#$forAll, #$thereExists, etc.) and
predicate Predicate or predication may refer to: * Predicate (grammar), in linguistics * Predication (philosophy) * several closely related uses in mathematics and formal logic: **Predicate (mathematical logic) **Propositional function **Finitary relation, o ...
s. Two important binary predicates are #$isa and #$genls. The first one describes that one item is an instance of some collection, the second one that one collection is a subcollection of another one. Facts about concepts are asserted using certain CycL ''sentences''. Predicates are written before their arguments, in parentheses: (#$isa #$BillClinton #$UnitedStatesPresident) "Bill Clinton belongs to the collection of U.S. presidents." (#$genls #$Tree-ThePlant #$Plant) "All trees are plants." (#$capitalCity #$France #$Paris) "Paris is the capital of France." Sentences can also contain variables, strings starting with "?". These sentences are called "rules". One important rule asserted about the #$isa predicate reads: (#$implies (#$and (#$isa ?OBJ ?SUBSET) (#$genls ?SUBSET ?SUPERSET)) (#$isa ?OBJ ?SUPERSET)) "If OBJ is an instance of the collection
SUBSET In mathematics, set ''A'' is a subset of a set ''B'' if all elements of ''A'' are also elements of ''B''; ''B'' is then a superset of ''A''. It is possible for ''A'' and ''B'' to be equal; if they are unequal, then ''A'' is a proper subset o ...
and SUBSET is a subcollection of
SUPERSET In mathematics, set ''A'' is a subset of a set ''B'' if all elements of ''A'' are also elements of ''B''; ''B'' is then a superset of ''A''. It is possible for ''A'' and ''B'' to be equal; if they are unequal, then ''A'' is a proper subset o ...
, then OBJ is an instance of the collection SUPERSET". Another typical example is (#$relationAllExists #$biologicalMother #$ChordataPhylum #$FemaleAnimal) which means that for every instance of the collection #$ChordataPhylum (i.e. for every
chordate A chordate () is an animal of the phylum Chordata (). All chordates possess, at some point during their larval or adult stages, five synapomorphies, or primary physical characteristics, that distinguish them from all the other taxa. These fi ...
), there exists a female animal (instance of #$FemaleAnimal), which is its mother (described by the predicate #$biologicalMother). The
knowledge base A knowledge base (KB) is a technology used to store complex structured and unstructured information used by a computer system. The initial use of the term was in connection with expert systems, which were the first knowledge-based systems. ...
is divided into ''microtheories'' (Mt), collections of concepts and facts typically pertaining to one particular realm of knowledge. Unlike the knowledge base as a whole, each microtheory must be free from ''monotonic'' contradictions. Each microtheory is a first-class object in the Cyc ontology; it has a name that is a regular constant; microtheory constants contain the string "Mt" by convention. An example is #$MathMt, the microtheory containing mathematical knowledge. The microtheories can inherit from each other and are organized in a hierarchy: one specialization of #$MathMt is #$GeometryGMt, the microtheory about geometry.


Inference engine

An
inference engine In the field of artificial intelligence, an inference engine is a component of the system that applies logical rules to the knowledge base to deduce new information. The first inference engines were components of expert systems. The typical expert ...
is a computer program that tries to derive answers from a knowledge base. The Cyc inference engine performs general logical deduction (including
modus ponens In propositional logic, ''modus ponens'' (; MP), also known as ''modus ponendo ponens'' (Latin for "method of putting by placing") or implication elimination or affirming the antecedent, is a deductive argument form and rule of inference. It ...
,
modus tollens In propositional logic, ''modus tollens'' () (MT), also known as ''modus tollendo tollens'' (Latin for "method of removing by taking away") and denying the consequent, is a deductive argument form and a rule of inference. ''Modus tollens'' ...
,
universal quantification In mathematical logic, a universal quantification is a type of quantifier, a logical constant which is interpreted as "given any" or "for all". It expresses that a predicate can be satisfied by every member of a domain of discourse. In othe ...
and
existential quantification In predicate logic, an existential quantification is a type of quantifier, a logical constant which is interpreted as "there exists", "there is at least one", or "for some". It is usually denoted by the logical operator symbol ∃, which, whe ...
). It also performs
inductive reasoning Inductive reasoning is a method of reasoning in which a general principle is derived from a body of observations. It consists of making broad generalizations based on specific observations. Inductive reasoning is distinct from ''deductive'' rea ...
, statistical machine learning and symbolic machine learning, and
abductive reasoning Abductive reasoning (also called abduction,For example: abductive inference, or retroduction) is a form of logical inference formulated and advanced by American philosopher Charles Sanders Peirce beginning in the last third of the 19th centu ...
(but of course sparingly and using the existing knowledge base as a filter and guide).


Releases


OpenCyc

The first version of OpenCyc was released in spring 2002 and contained only 6,000 concepts and 60,000 facts. The knowledge base was released under the Apache License.
Cycorp Cyc (pronounced ) is a long-term artificial intelligence project that aims to assemble a comprehensive ontology and knowledge base that spans the basic concepts and rules about how the world works. Hoping to capture common sense knowledge, Cyc f ...
stated its intention to release OpenCyc under parallel, unrestricted licences to meet the needs of its users. The
CycL CycL in computer science and artificial intelligence is an ontology language used by Doug Lenat's Cyc artificial intelligence project. Ramanathan V. Guha was instrumental in the design of early versions of the language. There is a close var ...
and SubL interpreter (the program that allows users to browse and edit the database as well as to draw inferences) was released free of charge, but only as a binary, without source code. It was made available for
Linux Linux ( or ) is a family of open-source Unix-like operating systems based on the Linux kernel, an operating system kernel first released on September 17, 1991, by Linus Torvalds. Linux is typically packaged as a Linux distribution, whic ...
and
Microsoft Windows Windows is a group of several Proprietary software, proprietary graphical user interface, graphical operating system families developed and marketed by Microsoft. Each family caters to a certain sector of the computing industry. For example, W ...
. The open source Texai project released the RDF-compatible content extracted from OpenCyc. A version of OpenCyc, 4.0, was released in June 2012. OpenCyc 4.0 included much of the Cyc ontology at that time, containing hundreds of thousands of terms, along with millions of assertions relating the terms to each other; however, these are mainly taxonomic assertions, not the complex rules available in Cyc. The OpenCyc 4.0 knowledge base contained 239,000 concepts and 2,093,000 facts. The main point of releasing OpenCyc was to help AI researchers understand what was ''missing'' from what they now call
ontologies In computer science and information science, an ontology encompasses a representation, formal naming, and definition of the categories, properties, and relations between the concepts, data, and entities that substantiate one, many, or all domains ...
and
knowledge graph The Google Knowledge Graph is a knowledge base from which Google serves relevant information in an infobox beside its search results. This allows the user to see the answer in a glance. The data is generated automatically from a variety of ...
s. It's useful and important to have properly taxonomized concepts like person, night, sleep, lying down, waking, happy, etc., but what's ''missing'' from the OpenCyc content about those terms, but present in the Cyc KB content, are the various rules of thumb that most of us share about those terms: that (as a default, in the ModernWesternHumanCultureMt) each person sleeps at night, sleeps lying down, can be woken up, is not happy about being woken up, ''and so on.'' That point does not require continually-updated releases of OpenCyc, so, as of 2017, OpenCyc is no longer available.


ResearchCyc

In July 2006, Cycorp released the
executable In computing, executable code, an executable file, or an executable program, sometimes simply referred to as an executable or binary, causes a computer "to perform indicated tasks according to encoded instructions", as opposed to a data fi ...
of ResearchCyc 1.0, a version of Cyc aimed at the research community, at no charge. (ResearchCyc was in beta stage of development during all of 2004; a beta version was released in February 2005.) In addition to the taxonomic information contained in OpenCyc, ResearchCyc includes significantly more semantic knowledge (i.e., additional facts and rules of thumb) involving the concepts in its knowledge base; it also includes a large lexicon,
English English usually refers to: * English language * English people English may also refer to: Peoples, culture, and language * ''English'', an adjective for something of, from, or related to England ** English national ide ...
parsing and generation tools, and
Java Java (; id, Jawa, ; jv, ꦗꦮ; su, ) is one of the Greater Sunda Islands in Indonesia. It is bordered by the Indian Ocean to the south and the Java Sea to the north. With a population of 151.6 million people, Java is the world's mo ...
-based interfaces for knowledge editing and querying. In addition it contains a system for
ontology-based data integration Ontology-based data integration involves the use of one or more ontologies to effectively combine data or information from multiple heterogeneous sources. It is one of the multiple data integration approaches and may be classified as Global-As-View ...
. As of 2017, regular releases of ResearchCyc continued to appear, with 600 research groups utilizing licenses around the world at no cost for noncommercial research purposes. As of December 2019, ResearchCyc is no longer supported. Cycorp expects to improve and overhaul tools for external developers over the coming years.


Applications

There have been over a hundred successful applications of Cyc; listed here are a few mutually dissimilar instances:


Pharmaceutical Term Thesaurus Manager/Integrator

For over a decade, Glaxo has used Cyc to semi-automatically integrate all the large (hundreds of thousands of terms)
thesauri A thesaurus (plural ''thesauri'' or ''thesauruses'') or synonym dictionary is a reference work for finding synonyms and sometimes antonyms of words. They are often used by writers to help find the best word to express an idea: Synonym dictio ...
of pharmaceutical-industry terms that reflect differing usage across companies, countries, years, and sub-industries. This ontology integration task requires domain knowledge, shallow semantic knowledge, but also arbitrarily deep common sense knowledge and reasoning. Pharma vocabulary varies across countries, (sub-) industries, companies, departments, and decades of time. E.g., what’s a'' gel pak''? What’s the “street name” for ''ranitidine hydrochloride''? Each of these ''n ''controlled vocabularies is an ontology with approximately 300k terms. Glaxo researchers need to issue a query ''in their current vocabulary'', have it translated into a neutral “true meaning”, and then have that transformed in the opposite direction to find potential matches against documents each of which was written to comply with a particular known vocabulary. They had been using a large staff to do that manually. Cyc is used as the universal interlingua capable of representing the union of all the terms’ “true meanings”, and capable of representing the 300k transformations between each of those controlled vocabularies and Cyc, thereby converting an ''n²'' problem into a linear one without introducing the usual sort of “telephone game” attenuation of meaning. Furthermore, creating each of those 300k mappings for each thesaurus is done in a largely automated fashion, by Cyc.


Terrorism Knowledge Base

The comprehensive
Terrorism Terrorism, in its broadest sense, is the use of criminal violence to provoke a state of terror or fear, mostly with the intention to achieve political or religious aims. The term is used in this regard primarily to refer to intentional violen ...
Knowledge Base was an application of Cyc in development that tried to ultimately contain all relevant knowledge about "terrorist" groups, their members, leaders, ideology, founders, sponsors, affiliations, facilities, locations, finances, capabilities, intentions, behaviors, tactics, and full descriptions of specific terrorist events. The knowledge is stored as statements in mathematical logic, suitable for computer understanding and reasoning.


Cleveland Clinic Foundation

The
Cleveland Clinic Cleveland Clinic is a nonprofit American academic medical center based in Cleveland, Ohio. Owned and operated by the Cleveland Clinic Foundation, an Ohio nonprofit corporation established in 1921, it runs a 170-acre (69 ha) campus in Cleveland ...
has used Cyc to develop a natural-language query interface of biomedical information, spanning decades of information on cardiothoracic surgeries. A query is parsed into a set of
CycL CycL in computer science and artificial intelligence is an ontology language used by Doug Lenat's Cyc artificial intelligence project. Ramanathan V. Guha was instrumental in the design of early versions of the language. There is a close var ...
(higher-order logic) fragments with open variables (e.g., "this question is talking about a person who developed an endocarditis infection", "this question is talking about a subset of Cleveland Clinic patients who underwent surgery there in 2009", etc.); then various constraints are applied (medical domain knowledge, common sense, discourse pragmatics, syntax) to see how those fragments could possibly fit together into one semantically meaningful formal query; significantly, in most cases, there is exactly ''one and only one'' such way of incorporating and integrating those fragments. Integrating the fragments involves (i) deciding which open variables in which fragments actually represent the same variable, and (ii) for all the final variables, decide what order and scope of quantification that variable should have, and what type (universal or existential). That logical (CycL) query is then converted into a
SPARQL SPARQL (pronounced " sparkle" , a recursive acronym for SPARQL Protocol and RDF Query Language) is an RDF query language—that is, a semantic query language for databases—able to retrieve and manipulate data stored in Resource Description ...
query that is passed to the CCF SemanticDB that is its
data lake A data lake is a system or repository of data stored in its natural/raw format, usually object blobs or files. A data lake is usually a single store of data including raw copies of source system data, sensor data, social data etc., and transform ...
.


MathCraft

One Cyc application aims to help students doing math at a 6th grade level, helping them much more deeply understand that subject matter. It is based on the experience that we often have ''thought'' we understood something, but only ''really'' understood it after we had to explain or teach it to someone else. Unlike almost all other educational software, where the computer plays the role of the teacher, this application of Cyc, called MathCraft, has Cyc play the role of a fellow student who is always slightly more confused than you, the user, are about the subject. The user's role is to observe the Cyc avatar and give it advice, correct its errors, mentor it, get it to see what it's doing wrong, etc. As the user gives good advice, Cyc allows the avatar to make fewer mistakes of that type, hence, from the user's point of view, it seems as though the user has just successfully taught it something. This is a variation of
learning by teaching In the field of pedagogy, learning by teaching (German: ''Lernen durch Lehren'', short LdL) is a method of teaching in which students are made to learn material and prepare lessons to teach it to the other students. There is a strong emphasis on a ...
.


Criticisms

The Cyc project has been described as "one of the most controversial endeavors of the artificial intelligence history". Catherine Havasi, CEO of Luminoso, says that Cyc is the predecessor project to IBM's Watson. Machine-learning scientist
Pedro Domingos Pedro Domingos is a Professor Emeritus of computer science and engineering at the University of Washington. He is a researcher in machine learning known for Markov logic network enabling uncertain inference. Education Domingos received an under ...
refers to the project as a "catastrophic failure" for several reasons, including the unending amount of data required to produce any viable results and the inability for Cyc to evolve on its own. Robin Hanson, a professor of economics at George Mason University, gives a more balanced analysis: A similar sentiment was expressed by
Marvin Minsky Marvin Lee Minsky (August 9, 1927 – January 24, 2016) was an American cognitive and computer scientist concerned largely with research of artificial intelligence (AI), co-founder of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology's AI laboratory, an ...
: "Unfortunately, the strategies most popular among AI researchers in the 1980s have come to a dead end," said Minsky. So-called “
expert system In artificial intelligence, an expert system is a computer system emulating the decision-making ability of a human expert. Expert systems are designed to solve complex problems by reasoning through bodies of knowledge, represented mainly as if� ...
s,” which emulated human expertise within tightly defined subject areas like law and medicine, could match users’ queries to relevant diagnoses, papers and abstracts, yet they could not learn concepts that most children know by the time they are 3 years old. “For each different kind of problem,” said Minsky, “the construction of expert systems had to start all over again, because they didn’t accumulate common-sense knowledge.” Only one researcher has committed himself to the colossal task of building a comprehensive common-sense reasoning system, according to Minsky. Douglas Lenat, through his Cyc project, has directed the line-by-line entry of more than 1 million rules into a commonsense knowledge base." Gary Marcus, a professor of psychology and neural science at New York University and the cofounder of an AI company called Geometric Intelligence, says "it represents an approach that is very different from all the deep-learning stuff that has been in the news.” This is consistent with Doug Lenat's position that "Sometimes the ''veneer'' of intelligence is not enough".
Stephen Wolfram Stephen Wolfram (; born 29 August 1959) is a British-American computer scientist, physicist, and businessman. He is known for his work in computer science, mathematics, and theoretical physics. In 2012, he was named a fellow of the American Ma ...
writes: Marcus writes: Every few years since it began publishing (1993), there is a new
Wired Magazine ''Wired'' (stylized as ''WIRED'') is a monthly American magazine, published in print and online magazine, online editions, that focuses on how emerging technologies affect culture, the economy, and politics. Owned by Condé Nast, it is headquar ...
article about Cyc, some positive and some negative (including one issue which contained one of each).


Notable employees

This is a list of some of the notable people who work or have worked on Cyc either while it was a project at MCC (where Cyc was first started) or Cycorp. * Douglas Lenat *
Michael Witbrock Michael John Witbrock is a computer scientist in the field of artificial intelligence. Witbrock is a native of New Zealand and is the former Vice President of Research at Cycorp, which is carrying out the Cyc project in an effort to produce a ge ...
*
Pat Hayes Patrick John Hayes FAAAI (born 21 August 1944) is a British computer scientist who lives and works in the United States. , he is a Senior Research Scientist at the Institute for Human and Machine Cognition in Pensacola, Florida. Education H ...
* Ramanathan V. Guha * Stuart J. Russell * Srinija Srinivasan * Jared Friedman * John McCarthy


See also

* BabelNet *
Categorical logic __NOTOC__ Categorical logic is the branch of mathematics in which tools and concepts from category theory are applied to the study of mathematical logic. It is also notable for its connections to theoretical computer science. In broad terms, categ ...
*
Chinese room The Chinese room argument holds that a digital computer executing a program cannot have a "mind," "understanding" or "consciousness," regardless of how intelligently or human-like the program may make the computer behave. The argument was pres ...
* DARPA Agent Markup Language *
DBpedia DBpedia (from "DB" for " database") is a project aiming to extract structured content from the information created in the Wikipedia project. This structured information is made available on the World Wide Web. DBpedia allows users to semanti ...
*
Fifth generation computer The Fifth Generation Computer Systems (FGCS) was a 10-year initiative begun in 1982 by Japan's Ministry of International Trade and Industry (MITI) to create computers using massively parallel computing and logic programming. It aimed to create ...
* Freebase * Large Scale Concept Ontology for Multimedia * List of notable artificial intelligence projects * Mindpixel * Never-Ending Language Learning *
Open Mind Common Sense Open Mind Common Sense (OMCS) is an artificial intelligence project based at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) Media Lab whose goal is to build and utilize a large commonsense knowledge base from the contributions of many thousands ...
* Semantic Web *
Suggested Upper Merged Ontology The Suggested Upper Merged Ontology (SUMO) is an upper ontology intended as a foundation ontology for a variety of computer information processing systems. SUMO defines a hierarchy of ''classes'' and related rules and relationships. These are expre ...
* SHRDLU *
True Knowledge Evi (formerly True Knowledge) is a technology company in Cambridge, England, founded by William Tunstall-Pedoe,
*
UMBEL In botany, an umbel is an inflorescence that consists of a number of short flower stalks (called pedicels) that spread from a common point, somewhat like umbrella ribs. The word was coined in botanical usage in the 1590s, from Latin ''umbella'' " ...
*
Wolfram Alpha WolframAlpha ( ) is an answer engine developed by Wolfram Research. It answers factual queries by computing answers from externally sourced data. WolframAlpha was released on May 18, 2009 and is based on Wolfram's earlier product Wolfram Math ...
* YAGO


References


Further reading

* Alan Belasco et al. (2004)
"Representing Knowledge Gaps Effectively"
In: D. Karagiannis, U. Reimer (Eds.): ''Practical Aspects of Knowledge Management, Proceedings of PAKM 2004, Vienna, Austria, December 2–3, 2004''. Springer-Verlag, Berlin Heidelberg. * * John Cabral & others (2005)
"Converting Semantic Meta-Knowledge into Inductive Bias"
In: ''Proceedings of the 15th International Conference on Inductive Logic Programming''. Bonn, Germany, August 2005. * Jon Curtis et al. (2005)
"On the Effective Use of Cyc in a Question Answering System"
In: ''Papers from the IJCAI Workshop on Knowledge and Reasoning for Answering Questions''. Edinburgh, Scotland: 2005. * Chris Deaton et al. (2005)
"The Comprehensive Terrorism Knowledge Base in Cyc"
In: Proceedings of the 2005 International Conference on Intelligence Analysis, McLean, Virginia, May 2005. * Kenneth Forbus et al. (2005)
"Combining analogy, intelligent information retrieval, and knowledge integration for analysis: A preliminary report"
In: ''Proceedings of the 2005 International Conference on Intelligence Analysis'', McLean, Virginia, May 2005 * douglas foxvog (2010), "Cyc". In:
Theory and Applications of Ontology: Computer Applications
',
Springer Springer or springers may refer to: Publishers * Springer Science+Business Media, aka Springer International Publishing, a worldwide publishing group founded in 1842 in Germany formerly known as Springer-Verlag. ** Springer Nature, a multinationa ...
. * Fritz Lehmann and d. foxvog (1998),
Putting Flesh on the Bones: Issues that Arise in Creating Anatomical Knowledge Bases with Rich Relational Structures
. In: ''Knowledge Sharing across Biological and Medical Knowledge Based Systems'',
AAAI The Association for the Advancement of Artificial Intelligence (AAAI) is an international scientific society devoted to promote research in, and responsible use of, artificial intelligence. AAAI also aims to increase public understanding of artif ...
. * Douglas Lenat and R. V. Guha (1990). ''Building Large Knowledge-Based Systems: Representation and Inference in the Cyc Project''. Addison-Wesley. . * James Masters (2002)
"Structured Knowledge Source Integration and its applications to information fusion"
In: ''Proceedings of the Fifth International Conference on Information Fusion''. Annapolis, MD, July 2002. * James Masters and Z. Güngördü (2003). -->."Structured Knowledge Source Integration: A Progress Report" In: ''Integration of Knowledge Intensive Multiagent Systems''. Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA, 2003. * Cynthia Matuszek et al. (2006)

In: ''Proc. of the 2006 AAAI Spring Symposium on Formalizing and Compiling Background Knowledge and Its Applications to Knowledge Representation and Question Answering''. Stanford, 2006 * Cynthia Matuszek et al. (2005) .[https://web.archive.org/web/20060325020518/http://www.cyc.com/doc/white_papers/AAAI051MatuszekC.pdf "Searching for Common Sense: Populating Cyc from the Web"">"An Introduction to the Syntax and Content of Cyc."

In: ''Proc. of the 2006 AAAI Spring Symposium on Formalizing and Compiling Background Knowledge and Its Applications to Knowledge Representation and Question Answering''. Stanford, 2006 * Cynthia Matuszek et al. (2005)

In: ''Proceedings of the Twentieth National Conference on Artificial Intelligence''. Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, July 2005. * Tom O'Hara et al. (2003). [https://web.archive.org/web/20060325020408/http://www.cyc.com/doc/white_papers/inducing-criteria-for-mass.pdf "Inducing criteria for mass noun lexical mappings using the Cyc Knowledge Base and its Extension to WordNet"">"Searching for Common Sense: Populating Cyc from the Web"

In: ''Proceedings of the Twentieth National Conference on Artificial Intelligence''. Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, July 2005. * Tom O'Hara et al. (2003)

In: ''Proceedings of the Fifth International Workshop on Computational Semantics''. Tilburg, 2003. * Fabrizio Morbini and Lenhart Schubert (2009). [https://web.archive.org/web/20150923211804/http://www.cs.rochester.edu/~morbini/files/commonsense09.pdf "Evaluation of EPILOG: a Reasoner for Episodic Logic"">"Inducing criteria for mass noun lexical mappings using the Cyc Knowledge Base and its Extension to WordNet"

In: ''Proceedings of the Fifth International Workshop on Computational Semantics''. Tilburg, 2003. * Fabrizio Morbini and Lenhart Schubert (2009)

University of Rochester, Commonsense '09 Conference (describes Cyc's library of ~1600 'Commonsense Tests') * Kathy Panton et al. (2002). [https://web.archive.org/web/20060325020252/http://www.cyc.com/doc/white_papers/iaai.pdf "Knowledge Formation and Dialogue Using the KRAKEN Toolset"">"Evaluation of EPILOG: a Reasoner for Episodic Logic"

University of Rochester, Commonsense '09 Conference (describes Cyc's library of ~1600 'Commonsense Tests') * Kathy Panton et al. (2002)

In: ''Eighteenth National Conference on Artificial Intelligence''. Edmonton, Canada, 2002. * Deepak Ramachandran P. Reagan & K. Goolsbey (2005). [http://reason.cs.uiuc.edu/deepak/CO05-FORCyc.pdf "First-Orderized ResearchCyc: Expressivity and Efficiency in a Common-Sense Ontology"">"Knowledge Formation and Dialogue Using the KRAKEN Toolset"

In: ''Eighteenth National Conference on Artificial Intelligence''. Edmonton, Canada, 2002. * Deepak Ramachandran P. Reagan & K. Goolsbey (2005)

In: ''Papers from the AAAI Workshop on Contexts and Ontologies: Theory, Practice and Applications''. Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, July 2005. * Stephen Reed and D. Lenat (2002). [https://web.archive.org/web/20091122191538/http://www.cyc.com/doc/white_papers/mapping-ontologies-into-cyc_v31.pdf "Mapping Ontologies into Cyc"">"First-Orderized ResearchCyc: Expressivity and Efficiency in a Common-Sense Ontology"

In: ''Papers from the AAAI Workshop on Contexts and Ontologies: Theory, Practice and Applications''. Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, July 2005. * Stephen Reed and D. Lenat (2002)

In: ''AAAI 2002 Conference Workshop on Ontologies For The Semantic Web''. Edmonton, Canada, July 2002. * Benjamin Rode et al. (2005). [https://web.archive.org/web/20060325020543/http://www.cyc.com/doc/white_papers/PatternRecovery-IA2005.pdf "Towards a Model of Pattern Recovery in Relational Data"">"Mapping Ontologies into Cyc"

In: ''AAAI 2002 Conference Workshop on Ontologies For The Semantic Web''. Edmonton, Canada, July 2002. * Benjamin Rode et al. (2005)

In: ''Proceedings of the 2005 International Conference on Intelligence Analysis''. McLean, Virginia, May 2005. * Dave Schneider et al. (2005). [https://web.archive.org/web/20060325020457/http://www.cyc.com/doc/white_papers/GatheringAndManagingFacts-IA2005.pdf "Gathering and Managing Facts for Intelligence Analysis"">"Towards a Model of Pattern Recovery in Relational Data"

In: ''Proceedings of the 2005 International Conference on Intelligence Analysis''. McLean, Virginia, May 2005. * Dave Schneider et al. (2005)

In: ''Proceedings of the 2005 International Conference on Intelligence Analysis''. McLean, Virginia, May 2005. * Schneider, D., & Witbrock, M. J. (2015, May). [http://www.www2015.it/documents/proceedings/companion/p673.pdf "Semantic construction grammar: bridging the NL/Logic divide"">"Gathering and Managing Facts for Intelligence Analysis"

In: ''Proceedings of the 2005 International Conference on Intelligence Analysis''. McLean, Virginia, May 2005. * Schneider, D., & Witbrock, M. J. (2015, May)

In Proceedings of the 24th International Conference on World Wide Web (pp. 673-678). * Blake Shepard et al. (2005). [https://web.archive.org/web/20060325020558/http://www.cyc.com/doc/white_papers/IAAI-05-CycSecure.pdf "A Knowledge-Based Approach to Network Security: Applying Cyc in the Domain of Network Risk Assessment"">"Semantic construction grammar: bridging the NL/Logic divide"

In Proceedings of the 24th International Conference on World Wide Web (pp. 673-678). * Blake Shepard et al. (2005)

In: ''Proceedings of the Seventeenth Innovative Applications of Artificial Intelligence Conference''. Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, July 2005. * Nick Siegel et al. (2004). [https://web.archive.org/web/20060303134555/http://www.cyc.com/doc/white_papers/WS804SiegelN.pdf "Agent Architectures: Combining the Strengths of Software Engineering and Cognitive Systems"">"A Knowledge-Based Approach to Network Security: Applying Cyc in the Domain of Network Risk Assessment"

In: ''Proceedings of the Seventeenth Innovative Applications of Artificial Intelligence Conference''. Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, July 2005. * Nick Siegel et al. (2004)

In: ''Papers from the AAAI Workshop on Intelligent Agent Architectures: Combining the Strengths of Software Engineering and Cognitive Systems''. Technical Report WS-04-07, pp. 74–79. Menlo Park, California: AAAI Press, 2004. * Nick Siegel et al. (2005). [https://web.archive.org/web/20060325020643/http://www.cyc.com/doc/white_papers/HypothesisGeneration-IA2005.pdf Hypothesis Generation and Evidence Assembly for Intelligence Analysis: Cycorp's Nooscape Application"">"Agent Architectures: Combining the Strengths of Software Engineering and Cognitive Systems"

In: ''Papers from the AAAI Workshop on Intelligent Agent Architectures: Combining the Strengths of Software Engineering and Cognitive Systems''. Technical Report WS-04-07, pp. 74–79. Menlo Park, California: AAAI Press, 2004. * Nick Siegel et al. (2005)

In Proceedings of the 2005 International Conference on Intelligence Analysis, McLean, Virginia, May 2005. * Michael Witbrock et al. (2002). [https://web.archive.org/web/20060325020212/http://www.cyc.com/doc/white_papers/IJCAI-paper-v5.pdf "An Interactive Dialogue System for Knowledge Acquisition in Cyc"">Hypothesis Generation and Evidence Assembly for Intelligence Analysis: Cycorp's Nooscape Application"

In Proceedings of the 2005 International Conference on Intelligence Analysis, McLean, Virginia, May 2005. * Michael Witbrock et al. (2002)

In: ''Proceedings of the Eighteenth International Joint Conference on Artificial Intelligence''. Acapulco, Mexico, 2003. * Michael Witbrock et al. (2004). [https://web.archive.org/web/20060325020304/http://www.cyc.com/doc/white_papers/SemAnnot2004-20041001.pdf "Automated OWL Annotation Assisted by a Large Knowledge Base"">"An Interactive Dialogue System for Knowledge Acquisition in Cyc"

In: ''Proceedings of the Eighteenth International Joint Conference on Artificial Intelligence''. Acapulco, Mexico, 2003. * Michael Witbrock et al. (2004)

In: ''Workshop Notes of the 2004 Workshop on Knowledge Markup and Semantic Annotation at the 3rd International Semantic Web Conference ISWC2004''. Hiroshima, Japan, November 2004, pp. 71–80. * Michael Witbrock et al. (2005). [http://www.aaai.org/Papers/Symposia/Spring/2005/SS-05-03/SS05-03-015.pdf "Knowledge Begets Knowledge: Steps towards Assisted Knowledge Acquisition in Cyc"">"Automated OWL Annotation Assisted by a Large Knowledge Base"

In: ''Workshop Notes of the 2004 Workshop on Knowledge Markup and Semantic Annotation at the 3rd International Semantic Web Conference ISWC2004''. Hiroshima, Japan, November 2004, pp. 71–80. * Michael Witbrock et al. (2005)

In: ''Papers from the 2005 AAAI Spring Symposium on Knowledge Collection from Volunteer Contributors (KCVC)''. pp. 99–105. Stanford, California, March 2005. * William Jarrold (2001). [http://www.aaai.org/Library/Symposia/Spring/2001/ss01-04-009.php "Validation of Intelligence in Large Rule-Based Systems with Common Sense"">"Knowledge Begets Knowledge: Steps towards Assisted Knowledge Acquisition in Cyc"

In: ''Papers from the 2005 AAAI Spring Symposium on Knowledge Collection from Volunteer Contributors (KCVC)''. pp. 99–105. Stanford, California, March 2005. * William Jarrold (2001)

"Model-Based Validation of Intelligence: Papers from the 2001 AAAI Symposium" (AAAI Technical Report SS-01-04). * William Jarrold. (2003). [https://web.archive.org/web/20181112101459/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/9f62/34eb20b8f626fc0f33f54f10375aa6676b2a.pdf Using an Ontology to Evaluate a Large Rule Based Ontology: Theory and Practice">"Validation of Intelligence in Large Rule-Based Systems with Common Sense"

"Model-Based Validation of Intelligence: Papers from the 2001 AAAI Symposium" (AAAI Technical Report SS-01-04). * William Jarrold. (2003)
Using an Ontology to Evaluate a Large Rule Based Ontology: Theory and Practice
(NIST Special Publication 1014).


External links

* [http://www.cyc.com/ Cycorp homepage
{{Computable knowledge Common Lisp (programming language) software">Cycorp homepage">Using an Ontology to Evaluate a Large Rule Based Ontology: Theory and Practice
(NIST Special Publication 1014).


External links


Cycorp homepage
{{Computable knowledge Common Lisp (programming language) software
Ontology (information science)
Knowledge bases Cognitive architecture