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''Symphytum'' is a
genus Genus ( plural genera ) is a taxonomic rank used in the biological classification of living and fossil organisms as well as viruses. In the hierarchy of biological classification, genus comes above species and below family. In binomial nom ...
of flowering plants in the borage family,
Boraginaceae Boraginaceae, the borage or forget-me-not family, includes about 2,000 species of shrubs, trees and herbs in 146, to 156 genera with a worldwide distribution. The APG IV system from 2016 classifies the Boraginaceae as single family of the ...
, known by the common name comfrey (pronounced ). There are 59 recognized species.WFO (2022): Symphytum L. Published on the Internet; http://www.worldfloraonline.org/taxon/wfo-4000037231. Accessed on: 14 Dec 2022 Some species and hybrids, particularly '' S. officinale'', ''
Symphytum grandiflorum ''Symphytum grandiflorum'', the creeping comfrey, or running comfrey is a species of flowering plant in the family Boraginaceae Boraginaceae, the borage or forget-me-not family, includes about 2,000 species of shrubs, trees and herbs in 146, ...
'', and ''S.'' × ''uplandicum'', are used in
gardening Gardening is the practice of growing and cultivating plants as part of horticulture. In gardens, ornamental plants are often grown for their flowers, foliage, or overall appearance; useful plants, such as root vegetables, leaf vegetables, frui ...
and
herbal medicine Herbal medicine (also herbalism) is the study of pharmacognosy and the use of medicinal plants, which are a basis of traditional medicine. With worldwide research into pharmacology, some herbal medicines have been translated into modern remedie ...
. They are not to be confused with ''
Andersonglossum virginianum ''Andersonglossum virginianum'', known as southern wild comfrey, is a flowering plant in the borage family native to North America. It is also sometimes called blue houndstongue. Formerly placed in the genus ''Cynoglossum'', it was transferred ...
'', known as wild comfrey, another member of the borage family.


Species

Species include: *''
Symphytum asperum ''Symphytum asperum'' is a flowering plant of the genus ''Symphytum'' in the family Boraginaceae. Common names include rough comfrey and prickly comfrey. It is native to Asia and it is known in Europe and North America as an introduced species an ...
'' – prickly comfrey, rough comfrey *''
Symphytum bulbosum ''Symphytum bulbosum'', common name bulbous comfrey, is a flowering plant of the genus ''Symphytum ''Symphytum'' is a genus of flowering plants in the borage family, Boraginaceae, known by the common name comfrey (pronounced ). There are 59 ...
'' – bulbous comfrey *''
Symphytum brachycalyx ''Symphytum'' is a genus of flowering plants in the borage family, Boraginaceae, known by the common name comfrey (pronounced ). There are 59 recognized species.WFO (2022): Symphytum L. Published on the Internet; http://www.worldfloraonline.org/ ...
'' - Palestine comfrey *'' Symphytum caucasicum'' – Caucasian comfrey *''
Symphytum grandiflorum ''Symphytum grandiflorum'', the creeping comfrey, or running comfrey is a species of flowering plant in the family Boraginaceae Boraginaceae, the borage or forget-me-not family, includes about 2,000 species of shrubs, trees and herbs in 146, ...
'' – creeping comfrey *''
Symphytum ibericum ''Symphytum'' is a genus of flowering plants in the borage family, Boraginaceae, known by the common name comfrey (pronounced ). There are 59 recognized species.WFO (2022): Symphytum L. Published on the Internet; http://www.worldfloraonline.org/ ...
'' – Iberian comfrey *'' Symphytum officinale'' – comfrey *''
Symphytum orientale ''Symphytum orientale'' is a species of flowering plant belonging to the family Boraginaceae Boraginaceae, the borage or forget-me-not family, includes about 2,000 species of shrubs, trees and herbs in 146, to 156 genera with a worldwide dis ...
'' – white comfrey *''
Symphytum tauricum ''Symphytum'' is a genus of flowering plants in the borage family, Boraginaceae, known by the common name comfrey (pronounced ). There are 59 recognized species.WFO (2022): Symphytum L. Published on the Internet; http://www.worldfloraonline.org/ ...
'' – Crimean comfrey *''
Symphytum tuberosum ''Symphytum tuberosum'', the tuberous comfrey, is a species of ''Symphytum'' in the family Boraginaceae. Species characteristics Tuberous comfrey flowers from April to June, however it also reproduces asexually, that is vegetatively, having ...
'' – tuberous comfrey *''Symphytum'' × ''uplandicum'' (''S. asperum'' × ''S. officinale'', synonym: ''S. peregrinum'') – Russian comfrey, healing herb, blackwort, bruisewort, wallwort, gum plant


Cultivation

The Russian comfrey 'Bocking 14' cultivar was developed during the 1950s by Lawrence D. Hills, the founder of the
Henry Doubleday Research Association Garden Organic, formerly known as the Henry Doubleday Research Association (HDRA), is a UK organic growing charity dedicated to researching and promoting organic gardening, farming and food. The charity maintains the Heritage Seed Library to pres ...
(the
organic gardening Organic horticulture is the science and art of growing fruits, vegetables, flowers, or ornamental plants by following the essential principles of organic agriculture in soil building and conservation, pest management, and heirloom variety prese ...
organization itself named after Henry Doubleday, who first introduced Russian comfrey into Britain in the nineteenth century) following trials at
Bocking, Essex Bocking is an area of Braintree, Essex, England, which was a former village and civil parish. In 1934 it became part of the civil parish of Braintree and Bocking, which is now within Braintree District. It forms an electoral division for Essex ...
.


Propagation

Bocking 14 is sterile, and therefore will not set seed (one of its advantages over other cultivars as it will not spread out of control); thus, it is propagated from root cuttings. The gardener can produce "offsets" from mature, strongly growing plants by driving a spade horizontally through the leaf clumps about below the soil surface. This removes the crown, which can then be split into pieces. The original plant will quickly recover, and each piece can be replanted with the growing points just below the soil surface, and will quickly grow into new plants. Offsets can also be purchased by mail order from specialist nurseries in order to initially build up a stock of plants.


Phytochemistry, folk medicine, and toxicity

Folk medicine Traditional medicine (also known as indigenous medicine or folk medicine) comprises medical aspects of traditional knowledge that developed over generations within the folk beliefs of various societies, including indigenous peoples, before the ...
names for comfrey include knitbone, boneset, and the derivation of its Latin name ''Symphytum'' (from the Greek ''symphis'', meaning growing together of bones, and ''phyton'', a plant), referring to its ancient uses. Similarly, the common French name is ''consoude'', meaning to weld together. The tradition in different cultures and languages suggest a common belief in its usefulness for mending bones. Comfrey contains mixed
phytochemical Phytochemicals are chemical compounds produced by plants, generally to help them resist fungi, bacteria and plant virus infections, and also consumption by insects and other animals. The name comes . Some phytochemicals have been used as poison ...
s in varying amounts, including
allantoin Allantoin is a chemical compound with formula C4H6N4O3. It is also called 5-ureidohydantoin or glyoxyldiureide. It is a diureide of glyoxylic acid. Allantoin is a major metabolic intermediate in most organisms including animals, plants and bacter ...
,
mucilage Mucilage is a thick, gluey substance produced by nearly all plants and some microorganisms. These microorganisms include protists which use it for their locomotion. The direction of their movement is always opposite to that of the secretion of m ...
,
saponin Saponins (Latin "sapon", soap + "-in", one of), also selectively referred to as triterpene glycosides, are bitter-tasting usually toxic plant-derived organic chemicals that have a foamy quality when agitated in water. They are widely distributed ...
s,
tannin Tannins (or tannoids) are a class of astringent, polyphenolic biomolecules that bind to and precipitate proteins and various other organic compounds including amino acids and alkaloids. The term ''tannin'' (from Anglo-Norman ''tanner'' ...
s,
pyrrolizidine alkaloid Pyrrolizidine alkaloids (PAs), sometimes referred to as necine bases, are a group of naturally occurring alkaloids based on the structure of pyrrolizidine. Pyrrolizidine alkaloids are produced by plants as a defense mechanism against insect he ...
s, and
inulin Inulins are a group of naturally occurring polysaccharides produced by many types of plants, industrially most often extracted from chicory. The inulins belong to a class of dietary fibers known as fructans. Inulin is used by some plants as a m ...
, among others. Pyrrolizidine alkaloids are responsible for comfreys production of hepatotoxicity.
Liver toxicity Hepatotoxicity (from ''hepatic toxicity'') implies chemical-driven liver damage. Drug-induced liver injury is a cause of acute and chronic liver disease caused specifically by medications and the most common reason for a drug to be withdrawn fr ...
is associated with consuming this plant or its
extract An extract is a substance made by extracting a part of a raw material, often by using a solvent such as ethanol, oil or water. Extracts may be sold as tinctures, absolutes or in powder form. The aromatic principles of many spices, nuts ...
s. In modern
herbalism Herbal medicine (also herbalism) is the study of pharmacognosy and the use of medicinal plants, which are a basis of traditional medicine. With worldwide research into pharmacology, some herbal medicines have been translated into modern reme ...
, comfrey is most commonly used topically. In 2001, the
United States The United States of America (U.S.A. or USA), commonly known as the United States (U.S. or US) or America, is a country Continental United States, primarily located in North America. It consists of 50 U.S. state, states, a Washington, D.C., ...
Food and Drug Administration The United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA or US FDA) is a federal agency of the Department of Health and Human Services. The FDA is responsible for protecting and promoting public health through the control and supervision of food ...
issued a ban of comfrey products marketed for internal use, and a warning label for those intended for external use. Comfrey is particularly contraindicated during pregnancy and lactation, in infants, and in people with liver, kidney, or
vascular The blood vessels are the components of the circulatory system that transport blood throughout the human body. These vessels transport blood cells, nutrients, and oxygen to the tissues of the body. They also take waste and carbon dioxide away f ...
diseases.


References


External links

*
Healthline
{{Taxonbar, from=Q161566 Boraginaceae genera Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus