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''Basileus'' ( el, ) is a Greek term and title that has signified various types of monarchs in history. In the
English English usually refers to: * English language * English people English may also refer to: Peoples, culture, and language * ''English'', an adjective for something of, from, or related to England ** English national ...
-speaking world it is perhaps most widely understood to mean " monarch", referring to either a " king" or an "
emperor An emperor (from la, imperator, via fro, empereor) is a monarch, and usually the sovereign ruler of an empire or another type of imperial realm. Empress, the female equivalent, may indicate an emperor's wife ( empress consort), mother (emp ...
" and also by
bishops A bishop is an ordained clergy member who is entrusted with a position of authority and oversight in a religious institution. In Christianity, bishops are normally responsible for the governance of dioceses. The role or office of bishop is c ...
of the Eastern orthodox church and
Eastern Catholic Churches The Eastern Catholic Churches or Oriental Catholic Churches, also called the Eastern-Rite Catholic Churches, Eastern Rite Catholicism, or simply the Eastern Churches, are 23 Eastern Christian autonomous (''sui iuris'') particular churches of th ...
. The title was used by sovereigns and other persons of authority in
ancient Greece Ancient Greece ( el, Ἑλλάς, Hellás) was a northeastern Mediterranean civilization, existing from the Greek Dark Ages of the 12th–9th centuries BC to the end of classical antiquity ( AD 600), that comprised a loose collection of cult ...
, the
Byzantine emperors This is a list of the Byzantine emperors from the foundation of Constantinople in 330 AD, which marks the conventional start of the Eastern Roman Empire, to its fall to the Ottoman Empire in 1453 AD. Only the emperors who were recognized as le ...
, and the kings of modern Greece. The feminine forms are ''basileia'' (), ''basilis'' (), ''basilissa'' (), or the archaic ''
basilinna The ''Basilinna'' ( grc-gre, Βασιλίννα) or ''Basilissa'' (), both titles meaning "queen", was a ceremonial position in the religion of ancient Athens, held by the wife of the ''archon basileus''. The role dated to the time when Athens wa ...
'' (), meaning "queen" or "empress".


Etymology

The etymology of ''basileus'' is uncertain. The Mycenaean form was *''gʷasileus'' ( Linear B: , ''qa-si-re-u''), denoting some sort of court official or local chieftain, but not an actual king. Its hypothetical earlier Proto-Greek form would be *''gʷatileus''. Some linguists assume that it is a non-Greek word that was adopted by
Bronze Age The Bronze Age is a historic period, lasting approximately from 3300 BC to 1200 BC, characterized by the use of bronze, the presence of writing in some areas, and other early features of urban civilization. The Bronze Age is the second prin ...
Greeks from a pre-existing linguistic Pre-Greek substrate of the Eastern Mediterranean. Schindler argues for an inner-Greek innovation of the ''-eus'' inflection type from
Indo-European The Indo-European languages are a language family native to the overwhelming majority of Europe, the Iranian plateau, and the northern Indian subcontinent. Some European languages of this family, English, French, Portuguese, Russian, Du ...
material rather than a Mediterranean loan.


Ancient Greece


Original senses encountered on clay tablets

The first written instance of this word is found on the baked
clay tablet In the Ancient Near East, clay tablets ( Akkadian ) were used as a writing medium, especially for writing in cuneiform, throughout the Bronze Age and well into the Iron Age. Cuneiform characters were imprinted on a wet clay tablet with a styl ...
s discovered in excavations of Mycenaean palaces originally destroyed by fire. The tablets are dated from the to the and are inscribed with the script, which was deciphered by Michael Ventris in 1952 and corresponds to a very early form of Greek. The word ''basileus'' is written as ''qa-si-re-u'' and its original meaning was "
chieftain A tribal chief or chieftain is the leader of a tribal society or chiefdom. Tribe The concept of tribe is a broadly applied concept, based on tribal concepts of societies of western Afroeurasia. Tribal societies are sometimes categorized as ...
" (in one particular tablet the chieftain of the guild of
bronze Bronze is an alloy consisting primarily of copper, commonly with about 12–12.5% tin and often with the addition of other metals (including aluminium, manganese, nickel, or zinc) and sometimes non-metals, such as phosphorus, or metalloids such ...
smith Smith may refer to: People * Metalsmith, or simply smith, a craftsman fashioning tools or works of art out of various metals * Smith (given name) * Smith (surname), a family name originating in England, Scotland and Ireland ** List of people wit ...
s is referred to as ''qa-si-re-u''). Here the initial letter ''q-'' represents the
PIE A pie is a baked dish which is usually made of a pastry dough casing that contains a filling of various sweet or savoury ingredients. Sweet pies may be filled with fruit (as in an apple pie), nuts (pecan pie), brown sugar ( sugar pie), sweete ...
labiovelar consonant ''*/gʷ/'', transformed in later Greek into ''/b/''. Linear B uses the same glyph for ''/l/'' and ''/r/'', now transcribed with a Latin "r" by uniform convention. (Similarly, the
Old Persian Old Persian is one of the two directly attested Old Iranian languages (the other being Avestan language, Avestan) and is the ancestor of Middle Persian (the language of Sasanian Empire). Like other Old Iranian languages, it was known to its native ...
word '' vazir'' also has almost the same meaning as "chieftain".) Linear B only represents syllables of single vowel, or of a consonant-vowel form, therefore any final ''-s'' is omitted.


''Basileus'' vs. ''wanax'' in Mycenaean times

The word can be contrasted with ''
wanax (Greek: ; from earlier , ') is an ancient Greek word for "tribal chief, lord, (military) leader".. It is one of the two Greek titles traditionally translated as "king", the other being basileus, and is inherited from Mycenaean Greece. It is nota ...
'', another word used more specifically for " king" and usually meaning " High King" or "overlord". With the collapse of Mycenaean society, the position of ''wanax'' ceases to be mentioned, and the ''basileis'' (the plural form) appear the topmost potentates in Greek society. In the works of Homer ''wanax'' appears, in the form ''ánax'', mostly in descriptions of Zeus (''ánax andrōn te theōn te'', "king of men and of the gods") and of very few human monarchs, most notably
Agamemnon In Greek mythology, Agamemnon (; grc-gre, Ἀγαμέμνων ''Agamémnōn'') was a king of Mycenae who commanded the Greeks during the Trojan War. He was the son, or grandson, of King Atreus and Queen Aerope, the brother of Menelaus, the hus ...
. Otherwise the term survived almost exclusively as a component in compound personal names (e.g., ''Anax''agóras, Pleisto''ánax'') and is still in use in Modern Greek in the description of the ''anáktoron / anáktora'' (" lace ''or'' homeof the ''ánax''"), i.e. of the royal palace. The latter is essentially the same word as ''wa-na-ka-te-ro'', ''wanákteros'', "of the ''wanax'' / king" or "belonging to the ''wanax'' / king", used in Linear B tablets to refer to various craftsmen serving the king (e.g. the "palace", or royal, spinner, or the ivory worker), and to items belonging or offered to the king (javelin shafts, wheat, spices, precincts etc.). Most of the Greek leaders in Homer's works are described as ''basileís'', which is rendered conventionally in English as "kings". However, a more accurate translation may be "princes" or "chieftains", which would better represent conditions in Greek society in Homer's time, and also the roles ascribed to Homer's characters. Agamemnon tries to give orders to Achilles among many others, while another ''basileus'' serves as his charioteer. His will, however, is not to be obeyed automatically. In Homer the ''wanax'' is expected to rule over the other ''basileis'' by consensus rather than by coercion, which is why Achilles rebels (the main theme of the Iliad) when he decides that Agamemnon is treating him disrespectfully.


Archaic ''basileus''

A study by R. Drews demonstrates that even at the apex of Geometric and Archaic Greek society, ''basileus'' did not automatically translate to "king": In a number of places authority was exercised by a college of ''basileis'' drawn from a particular clan or group, and the office had term limits. However, ''basileus'' could also be applied to the hereditary leaders of "tribal" states, like those of the Arcadians and the
Messenians Messenia or Messinia ( el, Μεσσηνία) was an ancient district of the southwestern Peloponnese, more or less overlapping the modern Messenia region of Greece. To the north it had a border with Elis along the Neda river. From there the bord ...
, in which cases the term approximated the meaning of "king".


Pseudo-Archytas' definition of the ''basileus'' as "sovereign" and "living law"

According to pseudo-
Archytas Archytas (; el, Ἀρχύτας; 435/410–360/350 BC) was an Ancient Greece, Ancient Greek philosopher, mathematician, music theorist, astronomer, wikt:statesman, statesman, and military strategy, strategist. He was a scientist of the Pythagor ...
's treatise "On justice and law" ''Basileus'' is more adequately translated into " Sovereign" than into "king". The reason for this is that it designates more the ''person'' of king than the ''office'' of king: the power of magistrates (''arkhontes'', "
archons ''Archon'' ( gr, ἄρχων, árchōn, plural: ἄρχοντες, ''árchontes'') is a Greek word that means "ruler", frequently used as the title of a specific public office. It is the masculine present participle of the verb stem αρχ-, mean ...
") derives from their social functions or offices, whereas the sovereign derives his power from himself. Sovereigns have '' auctoritas'', whereas magistrates retain '' imperium''. Pseudo-Archytas aimed at creating a theory of sovereignty completely enfranchised from
law Law is a set of rules that are created and are enforceable by social or governmental institutions to regulate behavior,Robertson, ''Crimes against humanity'', 90. with its precise definition a matter of longstanding debate. It has been vari ...
s, being itself the only source of
legitimacy Legitimacy, from the Latin ''legitimare'' meaning "to make lawful", may refer to: * Legitimacy (criminal law) * Legitimacy (family law) * Legitimacy (political) See also * Bastard (law of England and Wales) * Illegitimacy in fiction * Legit (d ...
. He goes so far as qualifying the ''Basileus'' as '' nomos empsykhos'', or "living law", which is the origin, according to Agamben, of the '' Führerprinzip'' and of
Carl Schmitt Carl Schmitt (; 11 July 1888 – 7 April 1985) was a German jurist, political theorist, and prominent member of the Nazi Party. Schmitt wrote extensively about the effective wielding of political power. A conservative theorist, he is noted as a ...
's theories on
dictatorship A dictatorship is a form of government which is characterized by a leader, or a group of leaders, which holds governmental powers with few to no limitations on them. The leader of a dictatorship is called a dictator. Politics in a dictatorship are ...
.


Use of ''basileus'' in classical times

In
classical times Classical antiquity (also the classical era, classical period or classical age) is the period of cultural history between the 8th century BC and the 5th century AD centred on the Mediterranean Sea, comprising the interlocking civilizations of ...
, most Greek states had abolished the hereditary royal office in favor of democratic or
oligarchic Oligarchy (; ) is a conceptual form of power structure in which power rests with a small number of people. These people may or may not be distinguished by one or several characteristics, such as nobility, fame, wealth, education, or corporate, r ...
rule. Some exceptions existed, namely the two hereditary Kings of Sparta (who served as joint commanders of the army, and were also called ''arkhagetai''), the
Kings of Cyrene Cyrene or Cyrenaica was a Greek colony on the North African coast, in what is now northeastern Libya, founded by Dorian settlers from Thera (modern Santorini) in the 7th century BC. Kings of Cyrene received a recurring posthumous hero cult like ...
, the
Kings of Macedon Kings or King's may refer to: * Monarchs: The sovereign heads of states and/or nations, with the male being kings *One of several works known as the "Book of Kings": **The Books of Kings part of the Bible, divided into two parts **The '' Shahnameh ...
and of the
Molossia The Molossians () were a group of ancient Greek tribes which inhabited the region of Epirus in classical antiquity. Together with the Chaonians and the Thesprotians, they formed the main tribal groupings of the northwestern Greek group. On thei ...
ns in
Epirus sq, Epiri rup, Epiru , native_name_lang = , settlement_type = Historical region , image_map = Epirus antiquus tabula.jpg , map_alt = , map_caption = Map of ancient Epirus by Heinric ...
and Kings of Arcadian Orchomenus. The Greeks also used the term to refer to various kings of "
barbaric A barbarian (or savage) is someone who is perceived to be either uncivilized or primitive. The designation is usually applied as a generalization based on a popular stereotype; barbarians can be members of any nation judged by some to be less ...
" (i.e. non-Greek) tribes in Thrace and Illyria, as well as to the
Achaemenid The Achaemenid Empire or Achaemenian Empire (; peo, 𐎧𐏁𐏂, , ), also called the First Persian Empire, was an ancient Iranian empire founded by Cyrus the Great in 550 BC. Based in Western Asia, it was contemporarily the largest em ...
kings of Persia. The Persian king was also referred to as ''Megas Basileus''/''Basileus Megas'' (Great King) or ''Basileus Basileōn'', a translation of the Persian title ''xšāyaθiya xšāyaθiyānām'' (" King of Kings"), or simply "''the'' king". There was also a cult of Zeus ''Basileus'' at Lebadeia. Aristotle distinguished the ''basileus'', constrained by law, from the unlimited tyrant (''tyrannos''), who had generally seized control. At Athens, the ''
archon basileus ''Archon basileus'' ( grc, ἄρχων βασιλεύς ') was a Greek title, meaning "king magistrate": the term is derived from the words ''archon'' "magistrate" and ''basileus'' "king" or "sovereign". Most modern scholars claim that in Classical ...
'' was one of the nine
archons ''Archon'' ( gr, ἄρχων, árchōn, plural: ἄρχοντες, ''árchontes'') is a Greek word that means "ruler", frequently used as the title of a specific public office. It is the masculine present participle of the verb stem αρχ-, mean ...
, magistrates selected by lot. Of these, the ''
archon eponymos In ancient Greece the chief magistrate in various Greek city states was called eponymous archon (ἐπώνυμος ἄρχων, ''epōnymos archōn''). "Archon" (ἄρχων, pl. ἄρχοντες, ''archontes'') means "ruler" or "lord", frequent ...
'' (for whom the year was named), the
polemarch A polemarch (, from , ''polemarchos'') was a senior military title in various ancient Greek city states (''poleis''). The title is derived from the words ''polemos'' (war) and ''archon'' (ruler, leader) and translates as "warleader" or "warlord" ...
(polemos archon = war lord) and the ''basileus'' divided the powers of Athens' ancient kings, with the ''basileus'' overseeing religious rites and homicide cases. His wife had to ritually marry Dionysus at the
Anthesteria The Anthesteria (; grc, Ἀνθεστήρια ) was one of the four Athenian festivals in honor of Dionysus. It was held each year from the 11th to the 13th of the month of Anthesterion, around the time of the January or February full moon. The t ...
festival.
Philippides of Paiania Philippides, son of Philomelos, of Paiania was an Athenian aristocratic oligarch. He is identified with the Philippides prosecuted by Hypereides in 336/5 B.C. who proposed honours for Macedonians after the Battle of Chaeronea, among them Alexand ...
was one of the richest Athenians during the age of Lycurgus of Athens, he was honoured archon, basileus in 293–292 BCE. Similar vestigial offices termed ''basileus'' existed in other Greek city-states. By contrast, the authoritarian rulers were never termed ''basileus'' in classical Greece, but ''archon'' (ruler) or ''tyrannos'' (tyrant); although
Pheidon Pheidon (Greek: Φείδων) was an Argive ruler during the 7th century BCE and 10th in line to Temenus. He was arguably Argos's most ambitious and successful ruler during the 7th century BCE. There is a possibility that there were in fact two di ...
of Argos is described by Aristotle as a ''basileus'' who made himself into a ''tyrannos''. Many Greek authors, reconciling Carthaginian supremacy in the western Mediterranean with eastern stereotypes of absolutist non-Hellenic government, termed the Punic chief magistrate, the '' sufet'', as ''basileus'' in their native language. In fact, this office conformed to largely republican frameworks, being approximately equivalent in mandate to the Roman consul. This conflation appears notably in Aristotle's otherwise positive description of the Carthaginian Constitution in the '' Politics'', as well as in the writings of Polybius, Diodorus Siculus, and Diogenes Laertius. Roman and early Christian writings sourced from Greek fostered further mischaracterizations, with the ''sufet'' mislabeled as the Latin ''rex''.


Alexander the Great

''Basileus'' and ''Megas Basileus''/''Basileus Megas'' were exclusively used by
Alexander the Great Alexander III of Macedon ( grc, Ἀλέξανδρος, Alexandros; 20/21 July 356 BC – 10/11 June 323 BC), commonly known as Alexander the Great, was a king of the ancient Greek kingdom of Macedon. He succeeded his father Philip II to ...
and his
Hellenistic In Classical antiquity, the Hellenistic period covers the time in Mediterranean history after Classical Greece, between the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC and the emergence of the Roman Empire, as signified by the Battle of Actium in 3 ...
successors in Ptolemaic Egypt,
Asia Asia (, ) is one of the world's most notable geographical regions, which is either considered a continent in its own right or a subcontinent of Eurasia, which shares the continental landmass of Afro-Eurasia with Africa. Asia covers an area ...
(e.g. the Seleucid Empire, the
Kingdom of Pergamon The Kingdom of Pergamon or Attalid kingdom was a Greek state during the Hellenistic period that ruled much of the Western part of Asia Minor from its capital city of Pergamon. It was ruled by the Attalid dynasty (; grc-x-koine, Δυναστε ...
and Kingdom of Pontus) and Macedon. The feminine counterpart is ''basilissa'' (queen), meaning both a queen regnant (such as
Cleopatra VII of Egypt Cleopatra VII Philopator ( grc-gre, Κλεοπάτρα Φιλοπάτωρ}, "Cleopatra the father-beloved"; 69 BC10 August 30 BC) was Queen of the Ptolemaic Kingdom of Egypt from 51 to 30 BC, and its last active ruler.She was also a ...
) and a queen consort. It is at this time that the term ''basileus'' acquired a fully royal connotation, in stark contrast with the much less sophisticated earlier perceptions of kingship within Greece.


Romans and Byzantines

Under
Roman Roman or Romans most often refers to: * Rome, the capital city of Italy * Ancient Rome, Roman civilization from 8th century BC to 5th century AD *Roman people, the people of ancient Rome *''Epistle to the Romans'', shortened to ''Romans'', a lett ...
rule, the term ''
basileus ''Basileus'' ( el, ) is a Greek term and title that has signified various types of monarchs in history. In the English-speaking world it is perhaps most widely understood to mean "monarch", referring to either a "king" or an "emperor" and al ...
'' came to be used, in the Hellenistic tradition, to designate the Roman Emperor in the ordinary and literary speech of the Greek-speaking Eastern Mediterranean. Although the early Roman Emperors were careful to retain the façade of the republican institutions and to not formally adopt monarchical titles, the use of ''basileus'' amply illustrates that contemporaries clearly perceived that the Roman Empire was a monarchy in all but name. Nevertheless, despite its widespread use, due to its "royal" associations the title ''basileus'' remained unofficial for the Emperor, and was restricted in official documents to client kings in the East. Instead, in official context the imperial titles ''
Caesar Gaius Julius Caesar (; ; 12 July 100 BC – 15 March 44 BC), was a Roman general and statesman. A member of the First Triumvirate, Caesar led the Roman armies in the Gallic Wars before defeating his political rival Pompey in a civil war, and ...
Augustus Caesar Augustus (born Gaius Octavius; 23 September 63 BC – 19 August AD 14), also known as Octavian, was the first Roman emperor; he reigned from 27 BC until his death in AD 14. He is known for being the founder of the Roman Pri ...
'', translated or transliterated into Greek as ''Kaisar Sebastos'' or ''Kaisar Augoustos'', and '' Imperator'', translated as ''
Autokratōr ''Autokrator'' or ''Autocrator'' ( grc-gre, αὐτοκράτωρ, autokrátōr, , self-ruler," "one who rules by himself," whence English "autocrat, from grc, αὐτός, autós, self, label=none + grc, κράτος, krátos, dominion, power ...
'', were used. By the 4th century however, ''basileus'' was applied in official usage exclusively to the two rulers considered equals to the Roman Emperor: the Sassanid Persian '' shahanshah'' ("king of kings"), and to a lesser degree the King of Axum, whose importance was rather peripheral in the Byzantine worldview. Consequently, the title acquired the connotation of "emperor", and when barbarian kingdoms emerged on the ruins of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century, their rulers were referred to in Greek not as ''basileus'' but as ''rēx'' or ''rēgas'', the hellenized forms of the Latin title ''rex'', king. The first documented use of ''basileus Rhomaíōn'' in official context comes, surprisingly, from the Persians: in a letter sent to Emperor Maurice (r. 582–602) by
Chosroes II Khosrow II (spelled Chosroes II in classical sources; pal, 𐭧𐭥𐭮𐭫𐭥𐭣𐭩, Husrō), also known as Khosrow Parviz ( New Persian: , "Khosrow the Victorious"), is considered to be the last great Sasanian king ( shah) of Iran, ruling ...
, Maurice is addressed in Greek as ''basileus Rhomaíōn'' instead of the habitual Middle Persian appellation ''kēsar-i Hrōm'' ("Caesar of the Romans"), while the Persian ruler refers to himself correspondingly as ''Persōn basileus'', thereby dropping his own claim to the Greek equivalent of his formal title, ''basileus basileōn'' ("king of kings"). The title appears to have slowly crept into imperial titulature after that, and Emperor
Heraclius Heraclius ( grc-gre, Ἡράκλειος, Hērákleios; c. 575 – 11 February 641), was Eastern Roman emperor from 610 to 641. His rise to power began in 608, when he and his father, Heraclius the Elder, the exarch of Africa, led a revolt ...
is attested as using it alongside the long-established ''Autokratōr Kaisar'' in a letter to
Kavadh II Shērōē (also spelled Shīrūya, New Persian: ), better known by his dynastic name of Kavad II ( pal, 𐭪𐭥𐭠𐭲 ''Kawād''; New Persian: قباد ''Qobād'' or ''Qabād''), was king ( shah) of the Sasanian Empire briefly in 628. He was ...
in 628. Finally, in a law promulgated on 21 March 629, the Latin titles were omitted altogether, and the simple formula , "faithful in Christ Emperor" was used instead. The adoption of the new imperial formula has been traditionally interpreted by scholars such as
Ernst Stein Ernst Edward Aurel Stein (19 September 1891, in Jaworzno – 25 February 1945, in Fribourg) was an Austrian-Jewish Byzantinist and a historian of Late Antiquity. Ernst was the son of Ernst Eduard Stein and Henrietta Rosalie (née Hein) and the ...
and
George Ostrogorsky Georgiy Aleksandrovich Ostrogorskiy (russian: Георгий Александрович Острогорский; 19 January 1902 – 24 October 1976), known in Serbian as Georgije Aleksandrovič Ostrogorski ( sr-Cyrl, Георгије Алекс ...
as indicative of the almost complete
hellenization Hellenization (other British spelling Hellenisation) or Hellenism is the adoption of Greek culture, religion, language and identity by non-Greeks. In the ancient period, colonization often led to the Hellenization of indigenous peoples; in ...
of the Empire by that time. In imperial coinage, however, Latin forms continued to be used. Only in the reign of
Leo III the Isaurian Leo III the Isaurian ( gr, Λέων ὁ Ἴσαυρος, Leōn ho Isauros; la, Leo Isaurus; 685 – 18 June 741), also known as the Syrian, was Byzantine Emperor from 717 until his death in 741 and founder of the Isaurian dynasty. He put an e ...
(r. 717–741) did the title ''basileus'' appear in silver coins, and on
gold coinage A gold coin is a coin that is made mostly or entirely of gold. Most gold coins minted since 1800 are 90–92% gold (22karat), while most of today's gold bullion coins are pure gold, such as the Britannia, Canadian Maple Leaf, and American Buf ...
only under
Constantine VI Constantine VI ( gr, Κωνσταντῖνος, ''Kōnstantinos''; 14 January 771 – before 805Cutler & Hollingsworth (1991), pp. 501–502) was Byzantine emperor from 780 to 797. The only child of Emperor Leo IV, Constantine was named co-em ...
(r. 780–797). "BASILEUS" was initially stamped on Byzantine coins in Latin script, and only gradually were some Latin characters replaced with Greek ones, resulting in mixed forms such as "BASIΛEVS". Until the 9th century, the Byzantines reserved the term ''basileus'' among Christian rulers exclusively for their own emperor in Constantinople. This usage was initially accepted by the "barbarian" kings of Western Europe themselves: Despite having neglected the fiction of Roman suzerainty from the 6th century onward, they refrained from adopting imperial titles. The situation began to change when the Western European states began to challenge the Empire's political supremacy and its right to the universal imperial title. The catalytic event was the coronation of
Charlemagne Charlemagne ( , ) or Charles the Great ( la, Carolus Magnus; german: Karl der Große; 2 April 747 – 28 January 814), a member of the Carolingian dynasty, was King of the Franks from 768, King of the Lombards from 774, and the first Em ...
as ''imperator Romanorum'' (" Emperor of the Romans") by
Pope Leo III Pope Leo III (died 12 June 816) was bishop of Rome and ruler of the Papal States from 26 December 795 to his death. Protected by Charlemagne from the supporters of his predecessor, Adrian I, Leo subsequently strengthened Charlemagne's position ...
on 25 December 800, at St. Peter's in Rome. The matter was complicated by the fact that the Eastern Empire was then managed by
Irene Irene is a name derived from εἰρήνη (eirēnē), the Greek for "peace". Irene, and related names, may refer to: * Irene (given name) Places * Irene, Gauteng, South Africa * Irene, South Dakota, United States * Irene, Texas, United State ...
(r. 797–802), who had gained control after the death of her husband, the Emperor Leo IV (r. 775–780), as regent for their 9 year-old son,
Constantine VI Constantine VI ( gr, Κωνσταντῖνος, ''Kōnstantinos''; 14 January 771 – before 805Cutler & Hollingsworth (1991), pp. 501–502) was Byzantine emperor from 780 to 797. The only child of Emperor Leo IV, Constantine was named co-em ...
(r. 780–797). After Constantine's coming of age, Irene eventually decided to rule in her own name. In the conflict that ensued, Irene was victorious, and Constantine was blinded and imprisoned, to die soon afterward. The revulsion generated by this incident of filicide ''cum''
regicide Regicide is the purposeful killing of a monarch or sovereign of a polity and is often associated with the usurpation of power. A regicide can also be the person responsible for the killing. The word comes from the Latin roots of ''regis'' ...
was compounded by the traditional (and especially
Frankish Frankish may refer to: * Franks, a Germanic tribe and their culture ** Frankish language or its modern descendants, Franconian languages * Francia, a post-Roman state in France and Germany * East Francia, the successor state to Francia in Germany ...
) aversion to the idea of a female sovereign. Although it is often claimed that, as monarch, Irene called herself in the male form ''basileus'', in fact she normally used the title ''basilissa''. The Pope would seize this opportunity to cite the imperial throne being held by a woman as vacant and establish his position as able to divinely appoint rulers. Leading up to this, Charlemagne and his Frankish predecessors had increasingly become the Papacy’s source of protection while the Byzantine’s position in Italy had weakened significantly. In 800 CE, Charlemagne, now a king of multiple territories, was proclaimed “Emperor of the Romans” by the Pope. Charlemagne's claim to the imperial title of the Romans began a prolonged diplomatic controversy which was resolved only in 812 when the Byzantines agreed to recognize him as "''basileus''", while continuing to refuse any connection with the Roman Empire. In an effort to emphasize their own Roman legitimacy, the Byzantine rulers thereafter began to use the fuller form ''basileus Rhomaíōn'' (, "emperor of the Romans") instead of the simple "''basileus''", a practice that continued in official usage until the end of the Empire. The title ''autokratōr'' was also revived by the early 9th century (and appears in coins from 912 on). It was reserved for the senior ruling emperor among several co-emperors (''symbasileis''), who exercised actual power. The term ''Megas Basileus''/''Basileus Megas'' ("Great Emperor") was also sometimes used for the same purpose. By the
Palaiologan period The Byzantine Empire was ruled by the Palaiologos dynasty in the period between 1261 and 1453, from the restoration of Byzantine rule to Constantinople by the usurper Michael VIII Palaiologos following its recapture from the Latin Empire, founde ...
, the full style of the Emperor was finalized in the phrase "X, in Christ the God faithful Emperor and Autocrat of the Romans" (, "''Χ, en Christō tō Theō pistós basileus kai autokratōr Rhōmaíōn''"). The later
German emperors The German Emperor (german: Deutscher Kaiser, ) was the official title of the head of state and hereditary ruler of the German Empire. A specifically chosen term, it was introduced with the 1 January 1871 constitution and lasted until the off ...
were also conceded the title "''basileus'' of the Franks". The Byzantine title in turn produced further diplomatic incidents in the 10th century, when Western potentates addressed the emperors as "emperors of the Greeks". A similar diplomatic controversy (this time accompanied by war) ensued from the imperial aspirations of Simeon I of Bulgaria in the early 10th century. Aspiring to conquer Constantinople, Simeon claimed the title "''basileus'' of the
Bulgarians Bulgarians ( bg, българи, Bǎlgari, ) are a nation and South Slavic ethnic group native to Bulgaria and the rest of Southeast Europe. Etymology Bulgarians derive their ethnonym from the Bulgars. Their name is not completely understo ...
and of the Romans", but was only recognized as "''basileus'' of the Bulgarians" by the Byzantines. From the 12th century however, the title was increasingly, although again not officially, used for powerful foreign sovereigns, such as the kings of France or Sicily, the tsars of the restored
Bulgarian Empire In the medieval history of Europe, Bulgaria's status as the Bulgarian Empire ( bg, Българско царство, ''Balgarsko tsarstvo'' ) occurred in two distinct periods: between the seventh and the eleventh centuries and again between th ...
, the
Latin emperors The Latin Emperor was the ruler of the Latin Empire, the historiographical convention for the Crusader realm, established in Constantinople after the Fourth Crusade (1204) and lasting until the city was recovered by the Byzantine Greeks in 1261 ...
and the
emperors of Trebizond The Trapezuntine emperors were the rulers of the Empire of Trebizond, one of the successor states of the Byzantine Empire founded after the Fourth Crusade in 1204, until its fall to the Ottoman Empire in 1461. All but two of the Trapezuntine rule ...
. In time, the title was also applied to major non-Christian rulers, such as
Tamerlane Timur ; chg, ''Aqsaq Temür'', 'Timur the Lame') or as ''Sahib-i-Qiran'' ( 'Lord of the Auspicious Conjunction'), his epithet. ( chg, ''Temür'', 'Iron'; 9 April 133617–19 February 1405), later Timūr Gurkānī ( chg, ''Temür Kür ...
or
Mehmed II Mehmed II ( ota, محمد ثانى, translit=Meḥmed-i s̱ānī; tr, II. Mehmed, ; 30 March 14323 May 1481), commonly known as Mehmed the Conqueror ( ota, ابو الفتح, Ebū'l-fetḥ, lit=the Father of Conquest, links=no; tr, Fâtih Su ...
. Finally, in 1354, Stefan Dušan, king of Serbia, assumed the imperial title, based on his Bulgarian mother's
Theodora Smilets of Bulgaria Theodora of Bulgaria ( Bulgarian and sr, Теодора) was a Bulgarian princess and Queen consort of Serbia, the first wife of Stefan Dečanski. Teodora was the second daughter of Tsar Smilets of Bulgaria and Smiltsena Palaiologina. Teodora i ...
royal line, self-styling himself in Greek as ''basileus'' and ''autokratōr'' of the Romans and Serbs which was, however, not recognized by the Byzantines.


New Testament and Jesus

While the terms used for the Roman emperor are ''Kaisar Augustos'' (Decree from Caesar Augustus, Dogma para Kaisaros Augoustou,
Luke People * Luke (given name), a masculine given name (including a list of people and characters with the name) * Luke (surname) (including a list of people and characters with the name) *Luke the Evangelist, author of the Gospel of Luke. Also known ...
2:1) or just ''Kaisar'' (see Render unto Caesar...) and Pontius Pilate is termed
Hegemon Hegemony (, , ) is the political, economic, and military predominance of one state over other states. In Ancient Greece (8th BC – AD 6th ), hegemony denoted the politico-military dominance of the ''hegemon'' city-state over other city-states. ...
(
Matthew Matthew may refer to: * Matthew (given name) * Matthew (surname) * ''Matthew'' (ship), the replica of the ship sailed by John Cabot in 1497 * ''Matthew'' (album), a 2000 album by rapper Kool Keith * Matthew (elm cultivar), a cultivar of the Chi ...
27:2), Herod is Basileus (in his coins also ''Basileōs Herodou'', "of King Herod", and by Josephus) Regarding Jesus the term basileus acquires a new Christian theological meaning out of the further concept of Basileus as a chief religious officer during the Hellenistic period. Jesus is ''Basileus Basileōn'' ( = King of Kings, Revelation 17:14, 19:16) (a previous Near Eastern phrase for rulers of empires), or ''Basileus tōn basileuontōn'' ( = literally King of those being kings, 1 Timothy 6:15). Other titles involving ''Basileus'' include ''Basileus tōn Ouranōn'', translated as '' King of Heaven'', with his ''Basileia tōn Ouranōn'', i.e. Kingship or
Kingdom of Heaven Kingdom of Heaven may refer to: Religious * Kingdom of Heaven (Gospel of Matthew) ** Kingship and kingdom of God, or simply Kingdom of God, the phrase used in the other gospels * Kingdom of Heaven (Daviesite), a schismatic sect, founded by Wil ...
, and is ''Basileus tōn Ioudaiōn'', i.e. King of the Jews (see
INRI In the New Testament, Jesus is referred to as the King of the Jews, both at the beginning of his life and at the end. In the Koine Greek of the New Testament, e.g., in John 19:3, this is written as ''Basileus ton Ioudaion'' (). Both uses of th ...
). In
Byzantine art Byzantine art comprises the body of Christian Greek artistic products of the Eastern Roman Empire, as well as the nations and states that inherited culturally from the empire. Though the empire itself emerged from the decline of Rome and lasted ...
, a standard depiction of Jesus is ''Basileus tēs Doxēs'' King of Glory (in the West 'the Christ or Image of Pity'); a phrase derived from the Psalms 24:10 and the ''Lord of Glory'' (
Kyrios ''Kyrios'' or ''kurios'' ( grc, κύριος, kū́rios) is a Greek word which is usually translated as "lord" or "master". It is used in the Septuagint translation of the Hebrew scriptures about 7000 times, in particular translating the name ...
tēs Doxēs, 1 Corinthians 2:8).


Modern Greece

During the post-Byzantine period, the term ''basileus'', by the renewed influence of Classical writers on the language, reverted to its earlier meaning of "king". This transformation had already begun in informal usage in the works of some classicizing Byzantine authors. In the Convention of London in 1832, the Great Powers agreed that the new Greek state should become a monarchy, and chose the Wittelsbach Prince Otto of Bavaria as its first king. The Great Powers furthermore ordained that his title was to be "" ''Vasilefs tes Elládos'', meaning "King of Greece", instead of "" ''Vasilefs ton Ellénon'', i.e. "King of the Greeks". This title had two implications: first, that Otto was the king only of the small Kingdom of Greece, and not of all Greeks, whose majority still remained ruled by the Ottoman Empire. Second, that the kingship did not depend on the will of the Greek people, a fact further underlined by Otto's addition of the formula "" ''eléo Theou'', i.e. '' By the Grace (Mercy) of God''. For 10 years, until the
3 September 1843 Revolution The 3 September 1843 Revolution ( el, Επανάσταση της 3ης Σεπτεμβρίου 1843; N.S. 15 September), was an uprising by the Hellenic Army in Athens, supported by large sections of the people, against the autocratic rule of ...
, Otto ruled as an absolute monarch, and his autocratic rule, which continued even after he was forced to grant a constitution, made him very unpopular. After being ousted in 1862, the new Danish dynasty of the House of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg began with King George I. Both to assert national independence from the will of the Powers, and to emphasize the constitutional responsibilities of the monarch towards the people, his title was modified to "King of the Hellenes", which remained the official royal title, until the abolitions of the Greek monarchy in 1924 and 1973. The two Greek kings who had the name of Constantine, a name of great sentimental and symbolic significance, especially in the irredentist context of the '' Megali Idea'', were often, although never officially, numbered in direct succession to the last Byzantine Emperor,
Constantine XI Constantine XI Dragases Palaiologos or Dragaš Palaeologus ( el, Κωνσταντῖνος Δραγάσης Παλαιολόγος, ''Kōnstantînos Dragásēs Palaiológos''; 8 February 1405 – 29 May 1453) was the last Roman (Byzantine) e ...
, as Constantine XII and Constantine XIII respectively.


See also

*
Anthesteria The Anthesteria (; grc, Ἀνθεστήρια ) was one of the four Athenian festivals in honor of Dionysus. It was held each year from the 11th to the 13th of the month of Anthesterion, around the time of the January or February full moon. The t ...
– a festival of Dionysus, in which a ''
basilinna The ''Basilinna'' ( grc-gre, Βασιλίννα) or ''Basilissa'' (), both titles meaning "queen", was a ceremonial position in the religion of ancient Athens, held by the wife of the ''archon basileus''. The role dated to the time when Athens wa ...
'' (wife of the
archon ''Archon'' ( gr, ἄρχων, árchōn, plural: ἄρχοντες, ''árchontes'') is a Greek word that means "ruler", frequently used as the title of a specific public office. It is the masculine present participle of the verb stem αρχ-, mean ...
basileus during the event) went through a ceremony of marriage to the wine god. Comparable to
carnivals Carnival is a Catholic Christian festive season that occurs before the liturgical season of Lent. The main events typically occur during February or early March, during the period historically known as Shrovetide (or Pre-Lent). Carnival typ ...
and other
charivari Charivari (, , , alternatively spelled shivaree or chivaree and also called a skimmington) was a European and North American folk custom in which a mock parade was staged through a community accompanied by a discordant mock serenade. Since the cro ...
s. * '' Auctoritas'' * '' Imperium'' * Sovereignty *
Basilica In Ancient Roman architecture, a basilica is a large public building with multiple functions, typically built alongside the town's forum. The basilica was in the Latin West equivalent to a stoa in the Greek East. The building gave its name t ...


Footnotes


References

*


External links

* {{Authority control Ancient Greek titles Ancient Roman titles Government of the Byzantine Empire Byzantine law Byzantine imperial titles Royal titles Ancient Greek government Government of Macedonia (ancient kingdom) Clay tablets Titles of national or ethnic leadership