Arrow poisons are used to poison arrow heads or darts for the purposes of hunting and warfare. They have been used by indigenous peoples worldwide and are still in use in areas of South America, Africa and Asia. Notable examples are the poisons secreted from the skin of the
poison dart frog, and
curare (or 'ampi'), a general term for a range of plant-derived arrow poisons used by the
indigenous peoples of South America.
Poisoned arrows have featured in
mythology
Myth is a folklore genre consisting of narratives that play a fundamental role in a society, such as foundational tales or origin myths. Since "myth" is widely used to imply that a story is not objectively true, the identification of a narra ...
, notably the
Greek story of
Heracles slaying the
centaur Nessus using arrows poisoned with the blood of the
Lernaean Hydra. The Greek hero
Odysseus poisons his arrows with
hellebore in
Homer's ''
Odyssey
The ''Odyssey'' (; grc, Ὀδύσσεια, Odýsseia, ) is one of two major ancient Greek epic poems attributed to Homer. It is one of the oldest extant works of literature still widely read by modern audiences. As with the '' Iliad'', ...
''. Poisoned arrows also figure in Homer's epic about the
Trojan War
In Greek mythology, the Trojan War was waged against the city of Troy by the Achaeans ( Greeks) after Paris of Troy took Helen from her husband Menelaus, king of Sparta. The war is one of the most important events in Greek mythology and ...
, the ''Iliad'', in which both
Achaeans and
Trojans
Trojan or Trojans may refer to:
* Of or from the ancient city of Troy
* Trojan language, the language of the historical Trojans
Arts and entertainment Music
* ''Les Troyens'' ('The Trojans'), an opera by Berlioz, premiered part 1863, part 189 ...
used toxic arrows and spears.
Poisoned arrows are referred to in the
Book of Job in the
Bible
The Bible (from Koine Greek , , 'the books') is a collection of religious texts or scriptures that are held to be sacred in Christianity
Christianity is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus ...
, descriptive of the sufferings experienced by the just man,
Job.
The modern terms "toxic" and "toxin" derive from the ancient Greek word for "bow", ', from Old Persian ''*taxa-'', "an arrow".
Poisoned arrows were used by real people in the ancient world, including the
Gauls,
ancient Romans, and the
nomadic Scythians
The Scythians or Scyths, and sometimes also referred to as the Classical Scythians and the Pontic Scythians, were an ancient Eastern
* : "In modern scholarship the name 'Sakas' is reserved for the ancient tribes of northern and eastern Cent ...
and
Soanes. Ancient Greek and Roman historians describe recipes for poisoning projectiles and historical battles in which poison arrows were used.
Alexander the Great
Alexander III of Macedon ( grc, Ἀλέξανδρος, Alexandros; 20/21 July 356 BC – 10/11 June 323 BC), commonly known as Alexander the Great, was a king of the ancient Greek kingdom of Macedon. He succeeded his father Philip II to ...
encountered poisoned projectiles during his
conquest of India (probably dipped in the
venom of
Russell's viper) and the army of the Roman general
Lucullus suffered grievous poison wounds from arrows shot by nomads during the
Third Mithridatic War (1st century BC).
In the
Kingdom of Kush
The Kingdom of Kush (; Egyptian: 𓎡𓄿𓈙 𓈉 ''kꜣš'', Assyrian: ''Kûsi'', in LXX grc, Κυς and Κυσι ; cop, ''Ecōš''; he, כּוּשׁ ''Kūš'') was an ancient kingdom in Nubia, centered along the Nile Valley in wh ...
, arrows were often poison-tipped. There is some indication that poisoned arrows were used in battle against the Romans from 27 BC to 22 BC.
The use of poisoned arrows in hunting and warfare by some
Native Americans has also been documented.
Over the ages,
Chinese warfare has included projectiles poisoned with various toxic substances.
Varieties
Arrow poisons around the world are created from many sources:
Plant-based poisons
*
Curare is a generic term for arrow poisons that contain
tubocurarine, curarine, quinine, protocurarine and related alkaloids. Most frequently it is derived from the bark of ''
Strychnos toxifera'', ''S. guianensis'' (family
Loganiaceae), ''
Chondrodendron tomentosum'' or ''Sciadotenia toxifera'' (family
Menispermaceae). Curare is a
competitive antagonist
A receptor antagonist is a type of receptor ligand or drug that blocks or dampens a biological response by binding to and blocking a receptor rather than activating it like an agonist. Antagonist drugs interfere in the natural operation of rec ...
that blocks
nicotinic acetylcholine receptors on the
post synaptic membrane of the
neuromuscular junction. It is a
muscle relaxant that causes death by paralyzing the
respiratory system, resulting in
asphyxiation.
*In Africa, many arrow poisons are made from plants that contain
cardiac glycosides, such as ''
Acokanthera'' (possessing
ouabain), oleander (''
Nerium oleander''), milkweeds (''
Asclepias
''Asclepias'' is a genus of herbaceous, perennial plant, perennial, flowering plants known as milkweeds, named for their latex, a milky substance containing cardiac glycosides termed cardenolides, exuded where cells are damaged. Most species ar ...
''), or ''
Strophanthus'', all of which are in the family
Apocynaceae
Apocynaceae (from '' Apocynum'', Greek for "dog-away") is a family of flowering plants that includes trees, shrubs, herbs, stem succulents, and vines, commonly known as the dogbane family, because some taxa were used as dog poison Members ...
.
Inee or onaye is a poison made from ''
Strophanthus hispidus'', which contains the cardiac glycoside strophanthin. It is used in
sub-Saharan West Africa, particularly in the areas of
Togo and
Cameroon
Cameroon (; french: Cameroun, ff, Kamerun), officially the Republic of Cameroon (french: République du Cameroun, links=no), is a country in west-central Africa. It is bordered by Nigeria to the west and north; Chad to the northeast; the ...
. Certain species of the genus ''
Mostuea'' (family
Gelsemiaceae) are used as additives to arrow poisons (other ingredients unspecified). The toxic principles of ''Mostuea'' are
alkaloid
Alkaloids are a class of basic, naturally occurring organic compounds that contain at least one nitrogen atom. This group also includes some related compounds with neutral and even weakly acidic properties. Some synthetic compounds of simila ...
s, not cardiac glycosides.
[Quattrocchi, Umberto (2012). CRC World dictionary of medicinal and poisonous plants: common names, scientific names, eponyms, synonyms and etymology. Vol. IV, M-Q. CRC Press Taylor and Francis Group. page 2564.]
*Poisoned arrows are used widely in the jungle areas of
Assam,
Burma
Myanmar, ; UK pronunciations: US pronunciations incl. . Note: Wikipedia's IPA conventions require indicating /r/ even in British English although only some British English speakers pronounce r at the end of syllables. As John C. Wells, Joh ...
and
Malaysia
Malaysia ( ; ) is a country in Southeast Asia. The federal constitutional monarchy consists of thirteen states and three federal territories, separated by the South China Sea into two regions: Peninsular Malaysia and Borneo's East Mal ...
. The main plant sources for the poisons are members of the genera ''
Antiaris'', ''
Strychnos'' and ''
Strophanthus''. ''
Antiaris toxicaria'' for example, a tree of the
mulberry and
breadfruit family, is commonly used on
Java and its neighbouring islands. The sap or juice of the seeds is smeared on the arrowhead on its own or mixed with other plant extracts.
The fast-acting active ingredient (either
antiarin,
strychnine or
strophanthin) attacks the
central nervous system causing
paralysis,
convulsions
A convulsion is a medical condition where the body muscles contract and relax rapidly and repeatedly, resulting in uncontrolled shaking. Because epileptic seizures typically include convulsions, the term ''convulsion'' is sometimes used as a ...
and
cardiac arrest
Cardiac arrest is when the heart suddenly and unexpectedly stops beating. It is a medical emergency that, without immediate medical intervention, will result in sudden cardiac death within minutes. Cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) and possi ...
.
*Several species of ''
Aconitum'' or "aconite," belonging to the
buttercup family, have been used as arrow poisons. The
Brokpa
The Brokpa (), sometimes referred to as Minaro, are a small ethnic group mostly found in the union territory of Ladakh, India around the villages of Dha and Hanu. Some of the community are also located across the Line of Control in Baltist ...
in
Ladakh
Ladakh () is a region administered by India as a union territory which constitutes a part of the larger Kashmir region and has been the subject of dispute between India, Pakistan, and China since 1947. (subscription required) Quote: "Jammu a ...
use ''A. napellus'' on their arrows to hunt
Siberian ibex; they were in use recently near lake
Issyk Kul in
Kyrgyzstan. The
Ainus in Japan used a species of ''
Aconitum'' to hunt
brown bear. It was also used by the
Butias and
Lepchas in
Sikkim
Sikkim (; ) is a state in Northeastern India. It borders the Tibet Autonomous Region of China in the north and northeast, Bhutan in the east, Province No. 1 of Nepal in the west and West Bengal in the south. Sikkim is also close to the Sil ...
and
Assam. The Chinese used ''Aconitum'' poisons both for hunting
and warfare.
*The
Caribs of the Caribbean used poisons made from the sap of the
manchineel tree (''Hippomane mancinella'') or
sandbox tree (''Hura crepitans''), both members of the
spurge
''Euphorbia'' is a very large and diverse genus of flowering plants, commonly called spurge, in the family Euphorbiaceae. "Euphorbia" is sometimes used in ordinary English to collectively refer to all members of Euphorbiaceae (in deference to t ...
family,
Euphorbiaceae.
Animal-based poisons
*In South America, tribes such as the Noanamá Chocó and Emberá Chocó of western
Colombia dip the tips of their blowgun darts in the poison found on the skin of three species of ''
Phyllobates
''Phyllobates'' is a genus of poison dart frogs native to Central and South America, from Nicaragua to Colombia. There are 3 different Colombian species of ''Phyllobates'', considered highly toxic species due to the poison they contain in the ...
'', a genus of
poison dart frog. In northern
Chocó Department, ''
Phyllobates aurotaenia'' is used, while ''
P. bicolor'' is used in
Risaralda Department and southern Chocó. In
Cauca Department
Cauca Department (, es, Departamento del Cauca) is a Department of Southwestern Colombia. Located in the southwestern part of the country, facing the Pacific Ocean to the west, the Valle del Cauca Department to the north, Tolima Department t ...
, only ''
P. terribilis'' is used for dart making. The poison is generally collected by roasting the frogs over a fire, but the
batrachotoxin
Batrachotoxin (BTX) is an extremely potent cardio- and neurotoxic steroidal alkaloid found in certain species of beetles, birds, and frogs. The name is from the Greek word grc, βάτραχος, bátrachos, frog, label=none. Structurally-relate ...
s in ''P. terribilis'' are powerful enough that it is sufficient to dip the dart in the back of the frog without killing it.
*In the northern
Kalahari Desert, the most commonly used arrow poison is derived from the
larva and
pupae of
beetles of the
genus
Genus ( plural genera ) is a taxonomic rank used in the biological classification of living and fossil organisms as well as viruses. In the hierarchy of biological classification, genus comes above species and below family. In binomial nom ...
''
Diamphidia
__NOTOC__
''Diamphidia'' or Bushman arrow-poison beetle, is an African genus of flea beetles, in the family Chrysomelidae.
The larvae and pupae of ''Diamphidia'' produce a toxin used by Bushmen as an arrow poison.
The Finnish explorer Hendrik J ...
''. It is applied to the arrow either by squeezing the contents of the larva directly onto the arrow head, mixing it with plant sap to act as an adhesive, or by mixing a powder made from the dried larva with plant juices and applying that to the arrow tip. The toxin is slow attacking and large animals, including humans, can survive 4–5 days before succumbing to the effects.
*In the United States,
Native American tribes used venomous reptiles to provide the poisons required. In the
Southwest United States
The Southwestern United States, also known as the American Southwest or simply the Southwest, is a geographic and cultural region of the United States that generally includes Arizona, New Mexico, and adjacent portions of California, Colorado ...
, the
Gila monster, being one of the only two
venomous lizards, has been used as a source.
* There is evidence of Pacific Island cultures using poison arrow and spear tips. An account from Hector Holthouse's book "Cannibal Cargoes"
[p. 141] (on the subject of the Australian Pacific Island Labour Trade) describes a canoe, resting on forks in the sand; within the canoe the body of a man rotting in the sun. The unsealed canoe allowing the putrefaction to collect in a notched shallow bowl in which arrow heads and spear tips are soaked. Wounds with these weapons caused
tetanus infection.
Preparation
The following 17th-century account describes how arrow poisons were prepared in China:
See also
*
Blowgun
A blowgun (also called a blowpipe or blow tube) is a simple ranged weapon consisting of a long narrow tube for shooting light projectiles such as darts. It operates by having the projectile placed inside the pipe and using the force created by f ...
*
Bushman poison (disambiguation)
*
Fire Arrow
*
Fukiya, Japanese blowgun
*
Loire style blowgun (French page)
References
{{DEFAULTSORT:Arrow Poison
Archery
Arrow types
Hunting equipment
Projectiles
Poisons