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Buddhism Buddhism ( , ), also known as Buddha Dharma and Dharmavinaya (), is an Indian religion or philosophical tradition based on teachings attributed to the Buddha. It originated in northern India as a -movement in the 5th century BCE, and gra ...
, the term ''anattā'' (
Pali Pali () is a Middle Indo-Aryan liturgical language native to the Indian subcontinent. It is widely studied because it is the language of the Buddhist ''Pāli Canon'' or ''Tipiṭaka'' as well as the sacred language of ''Theravāda'' Buddhism ...
: अनत्ता) or ''anātman'' (
Sanskrit Sanskrit (; attributively , ; nominally , , ) is a classical language belonging to the Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European languages. It arose in South Asia after its predecessor languages had diffused there from the northwest in the late ...
: अनात्मन्) refers to the doctrine of "non-self" – that no unchanging, permanent self or essence can be found in any phenomenon. While often interpreted as a doctrine denying the existence of a self, ''anatman'' is more accurately described as a strategy to attain non-attachment by recognizing everything as impermanent, while staying silent on the ultimate existence of an unchanging essence. In contrast, Hinduism asserts the existence of ''
Atman Atman or Ātman may refer to: Film * ''Ātman'' (1975 film), a Japanese experimental short film directed by Toshio Matsumoto * ''Atman'' (1997 film), a documentary film directed by Pirjo Honkasalo People * Pavel Atman (born 1987), Russian hand ...
'' as pure awareness or witness-consciousness, "reify ngconsciousness as an eternal self."


Etymology and nomenclature

''Anattā'' is a composite Pali word consisting of ''an'' (not, without) and ''attā'' (self-existent essence). The term refers to the central Buddhist concept that there is no phenomenon that has "self" or essence. It is one of the three characteristics of all existence, together with '' dukkha'' (suffering, dissatisfaction) and ''
anicca Impermanence, also known as the philosophical problem of change, is a philosophical concept addressed in a variety of religions and philosophies. In Eastern philosophy it is notable for its role in the Buddhist three marks of existence. It is ...
'' (impermanence). ''Anattā'' is synonymous with ''Anātman'' (an + ātman) in Sanskrit Buddhist texts. In some Pali texts, ''ātman'' of Vedic texts is also referred to with the term ''Attan'', with the sense of soul. An alternate use of ''Attan'' or ''Atta'' is "self, oneself, essence of a person", driven by the Vedic era Brahmanical belief that atman is the permanent, unchangeable essence of a living being, or the true self. In Buddhism-related English literature, ''Anattā'' is rendered as "not-Self", but this translation expresses an incomplete meaning, states
Peter Harvey Peter Michael St Clair Harvey (16 September 19442 March 2013) was an Australian journalist and broadcaster. Harvey was a long-serving correspondent and contributor with the Nine Network from 1975 to 2013. Career Harvey studied his journalism ...
; a more complete rendering is "non-Self" because from its earliest days, ''Anattā'' doctrine denies that there is anything called a 'Self' in any person or anything else, and that a belief in 'Self' is a source of ''Dukkha'' (suffering, pain, unsatisfactoriness). Buddhist scholar
Richard Gombrich Richard Francis Gombrich (; born 17 July 1937) is a British Indologist and scholar of Sanskrit, Pāli, and Buddhist studies. He was the Boden Professor of Sanskrit at the University of Oxford from 1976 to 2004. He is currently Founder-President ...
, however, argues that ''anattā'' is often mistranslated as meaning "not having a self or essence", but actually means "''is'' not ''ātman''" instead of "does not ''have ātman''." It is also incorrect to translate ''Anattā'' simply as "ego-less", according to Peter Harvey, because the Indian concept of ''ātman'' and ''attā'' is different from the Freudian concept of ego.


Anattā in early Buddhism


In early Buddhist texts

The concept of ''Anattā'' appears in numerous
Sutra ''Sutra'' ( sa, सूत्र, translit=sūtra, translit-std=IAST, translation=string, thread)Monier Williams, ''Sanskrit English Dictionary'', Oxford University Press, Entry fo''sutra'' page 1241 in Indian literary traditions refers to an aph ...
s of the ancient Buddhist
Nikāya ''Nikāya'' () is a Pāli word meaning "volume". It is often used like the Sanskrit word '' āgama'' () to mean "collection", "assemblage", "class" or "group" in both Pāḷi and Sanskrit. It is most commonly used in reference to the Pali Buddhist ...
texts (Pali canon). It appears, for example, as a noun in '' Samyutta Nikaya'' III.141, IV.49, V.345, in Sutta II.37 of '' Anguttara Nikaya'', II.37–45 and II.80 of '' Patisambhidamagga'', III.406 of ''
Dhammapada The Dhammapada (Pāli; sa, धर्मपद, Dharmapada) is a collection of sayings of the Buddha in verse form and one of the most widely read and best known Buddhist scriptures. The original version of the Dhammapada is in the Khuddaka ...
''. It also appears as an adjective, for example, in '' Samyutta Nikaya'' III.114, III.133, IV.28 and IV.130–166, in Sutta III.66 and V.86 of ''
Vinaya The Vinaya (Pali & Sanskrit: विनय) is the division of the Buddhist canon ('' Tripitaka'') containing the rules and procedures that govern the Buddhist Sangha (community of like-minded ''sramanas''). Three parallel Vinaya traditions remai ...
''. It is also found in the ''Dhammapada''. The ancient Buddhist texts discuss ''Attā'' or ''Attan'' (self), sometimes with alternate terms such as ''Atuman'', ''Tuma'', ''Puggala'', ''Jiva'', ''Satta'', ''Pana'' and ''Nama-rupa'', thereby providing the context for the Buddhist ''Anattā'' doctrine. Examples of such ''Attā'' contextual discussions are found in ''Digha Nikaya'' I.186–187, ''Samyutta Nikaya'' III.179 and IV.54, ''Vinaya'' I.14, ''Majjhima Nikaya'' I.138, III.19, and III.265–271 and ''Anguttara Nikaya'' I.284. According to Steven Collins, the inquiry of ''anattā'' and "denial of self" in the canonical Buddhist texts is "insisted on only in certain theoretical contexts", while they use the terms ''atta, purisa, puggala'' quite naturally and freely in various contexts. The elaboration of the ''anattā'' doctrine, along with identification of the words such as "puggala" as "permanent subject or soul" appears in later Buddhist literature. According to Collins, the Suttas present the doctrine in three forms. First, they apply the "no-self, no-identity" investigation to all phenomena as well as any and all objects, yielding the idea that "all things are not-self" (''sabbe dhamma anattā''). Second, states Collins, the Suttas apply the doctrine to deny self of any person, treating conceit to be evident in any assertion of "this is mine, this I am, this is myself" (''etam mamam eso 'ham asmi, eso me atta ti''). Third, the Theravada texts apply the doctrine as a nominal reference, to identify examples of "self" and "not-self", respectively the Wrong view and the Right view; this third case of nominative usage is properly translated as "self" (as an identity) and is unrelated to "soul", states Collins. The first two usages incorporate the idea of soul.


No denial of self

Buddhist scholars
Richard Gombrich Richard Francis Gombrich (; born 17 July 1937) is a British Indologist and scholar of Sanskrit, Pāli, and Buddhist studies. He was the Boden Professor of Sanskrit at the University of Oxford from 1976 to 2004. He is currently Founder-President ...
and Alexander Wynne argue that the Buddha's descriptions of non-self in early Buddhist texts do not deny that there is a self. Wynne and Gombrich both argue that the Buddha's statements on ''anattā'' were originally a "not-self" teaching that developed into a "no-self" teaching in later Buddhist thought. According to Wynne, early Buddhist texts such as the '' Anattālakkhana Sutta'' do not deny that there is a self, stating that the
five aggregates (Sanskrit) or (Pāḷi) means "heaps, aggregates, collections, groupings". In Buddhism, it refers to the five aggregates of clinging (), the five material and mental factors that take part in the rise of craving and clinging. They are also ...
that are described as not self are not descriptions of a human being but descriptions of the human experience. According to
Johannes Bronkhorst Johannes Bronkhorst (born 17 July 1946, Schiedam) is a Dutch Orientalist and Indologist, specializing in Buddhist studies and early Buddhism. He is emeritus professor at the University of Lausanne. Life After studying Mathematics, Physics, and ...
, it is possible that "original Buddhism did not deny the existence of the soul", even though a firm Buddhist tradition has maintained that the Buddha avoided talking about the soul or even denied its existence. Tibetologist
André Migot André Migot (1892–1967) was a French doctor, traveler and writer. He served as an army medical officer in World War I, winning the Croix de Guerre. After the war he engaged in research in marine biology, and then practised as a doctor in F ...
states that original Buddhism may not have taught a complete absence of self, pointing to evidence presented by Buddhist and Pali scholars
Jean Przyluski Jean Przyluski (17 August 1885 – 28 October 1944) was a French linguist and scholar of religion and Buddhism of Polish descent. His interests ranged widely through the structure of the Vietnamese language, the development of Buddhist myths ...
and Caroline Rhys Davids that early Buddhism generally believed in a self, making Buddhist schools that admit an existence of a "self" not heretical, but conservative, adhering to ancient beliefs. While there may be ambivalence on the existence or non-existence of self in early Buddhist literature, Bronkhorst suggests that these texts clearly indicate that the Buddhist path of liberation consists not in seeking Atman-like self-knowledge, but in turning away from what might erroneously be regarded as the self. This is a reverse position to the
Vedic upright=1.2, The Vedas are ancient Sanskrit texts of Hinduism. Above: A page from the '' Atharvaveda''. The Vedas (, , ) are a large body of religious texts originating in ancient India. Composed in Vedic Sanskrit, the texts constitute the ...
traditions which recognized the knowledge of the self as "the principal means to achieving liberation." According to Harvey, the contextual use of ''Attā'' in Nikāyas is two sided. In one, it directly denies that anything can be found called a self or soul in a human being that is a permanent essence of a human being, a theme found in Brahmanical (Ancient Hindu) traditions. In another, states
Peter Harvey Peter Michael St Clair Harvey (16 September 19442 March 2013) was an Australian journalist and broadcaster. Harvey was a long-serving correspondent and contributor with the Nine Network from 1975 to 2013. Career Harvey studied his journalism ...
, such as at ''Samyutta Nikaya'' IV.286, the Sutta considers the materialistic concept in pre-Buddhist Vedic times of "no afterlife, complete annihilation" at death to be a denial of Self, but still "tied up with belief in a Self". "Self exists" is a false premise, assert the early Buddhist texts. However, adds Peter Harvey, these texts do not admit the premise "Self does not exist" either because the wording presumes the concept of "Self" prior to denying it; instead, the early Buddhist texts use the concept of ''Anattā'' as the implicit premise.


Developing the self

According to
Peter Harvey Peter Michael St Clair Harvey (16 September 19442 March 2013) was an Australian journalist and broadcaster. Harvey was a long-serving correspondent and contributor with the Nine Network from 1975 to 2013. Career Harvey studied his journalism ...
, while the ''Suttas'' criticize notions of an eternal, unchanging Self as baseless, they see an enlightened being as one whose empirical self is highly developed. This is paradoxical, states Harvey, in that "the Self-like ''nibbana'' state" is a mature self that knows "everything as Selfless". The "empirical self" is the ''citta'' (mind/heart, mindset, emotional nature), and the development of self in the Suttas is the development of this ''citta''. One with "great self", state the early Buddhist ''Suttas'', has a mind which is neither at the mercy of outside stimuli nor its own moods, neither scattered nor diffused, but imbued with self-control, and self-contained towards the single goal of ''nibbana'' and a 'Self-like' state. This "great self" is not yet an ''Arahat'', because he still does small evil action which leads to karmic fruition, but he has enough virtue that he does not experience this fruition in hell. An ''Arahat'', states Harvey, has a fully enlightened state of empirical self, one that lacks the "sense of both 'I am' and 'this I am'", which are illusions that the ''Arahat'' has transcended. The Buddhist thought and salvation theory emphasizes a development of self towards a Selfless state not only with respect to oneself, but recognizing the lack of relational essence and Self in others, wherein states Martijn van Zomeren, "self is an illusion".


Karma, rebirth and anattā

The Buddha emphasized both karma and ''anattā'' doctrines."Selves & Not-self: The Buddhist Teaching on Anatta", by Thanissaro Bhikkhu. Access to Insight (Legacy Edition), 30 November 2013, http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/thanissaro/selvesnotself.html The Buddha criticized the doctrine that posited an unchanging essence as a subject as the basis of rebirth and karmic moral responsibility, which he called "atthikavāda". He also criticized the materialistic doctrine that denied the existence of both soul and rebirth, and thereby denied karmic moral responsibility, which he calls "natthikavāda".
David Kalupahana David J. Kalupahana (1936–2014) was a Buddhist scholar from Sri Lanka. He was a student of the late K.N. Jayatilleke, who was a student of Wittgenstein. He wrote mainly about epistemology, theory of language, and compared later Buddhist philos ...
, ''Causality: The Central Philosophy of Buddhism.'' The University Press of Hawaii, 1975, page 44.
Instead, the Buddha asserted that there is no essence, but there is rebirth for which karmic moral responsibility is a must. In the Buddha's framework of karma, right view and right actions are necessary for liberation.
Hinduism Hinduism () is an Indian religion or '' dharma'', a religious and universal order or way of life by which followers abide. As a religion, it is the world's third-largest, with over 1.2–1.35 billion followers, or 15–16% of the global p ...
,
Jainism Jainism ( ), also known as Jain Dharma, is an Indian religions, Indian religion. Jainism traces its spiritual ideas and history through the succession of twenty-four tirthankaras (supreme preachers of ''Dharma''), with the first in the current ...
and Buddhism all assert a belief in rebirth, and emphasize moral responsibility in a way different from pre-Buddhist materialistic schools of Indian philosophies. The materialistic schools of Indian philosophies, such as
Charvaka Charvaka ( sa, चार्वाक; IAST: ''Cārvāka''), also known as ''Lokāyata'', is an ancient school of Indian materialism. Charvaka holds direct perception, empiricism, and conditional inference as proper sources of knowledge, embrac ...
, are called annihilationist schools because they posited that death is the end, there is no afterlife, no soul, no rebirth, no karma, and death is that state where a living being is completely annihilated, dissolved. Buddha criticized the materialistic annihilationism view that denied rebirth and karma, states Damien Keown. Such beliefs are inappropriate and dangerous, stated Buddha, because they encourage moral irresponsibility and material hedonism. Anattā does not mean there is no afterlife, no rebirth or no fruition of karma, and Buddhism contrasts itself to annihilationist schools. Buddhism also contrasts itself to other Indian religions that champion moral responsibility but posit eternalism with their premise that within each human being there is an essence or eternal soul, and this soul is part of the nature of a living being, existence and metaphysical
reality Reality is the sum or aggregate of all that is real or existent within a system, as opposed to that which is only imaginary. The term is also used to refer to the ontological status of things, indicating their existence. In physical terms, r ...
.


Anattā in Theravada Buddhism


Traditional views

Theravada Buddhism ''Theravāda'' () ( si, ථේරවාදය, my, ထေရဝါဒ, th, เถรวาท, km, ថេរវាទ, lo, ເຖຣະວາດ, pi, , ) is the most commonly accepted name of Buddhism's oldest existing school. The school' ...
scholars, states
Oliver Leaman Oliver Leaman (born 1950) is a professor of philosophy and Zantker Professor of Judaic studies at the University of Kentucky, where he has been teaching since 2000. He studies the history of Islamic, Jewish and Eastern philosophy. He received hi ...
, consider the ''Anattā'' doctrine as one of the main theses of Buddhism. The Buddhist denial of an unchanging, permanent self is what distinguishes Buddhism from major religions of the world such as Christianity and Hinduism, giving it uniqueness, asserts the Theravada tradition. With the doctrine of ''Anattā'', stands or falls the entire Buddhist structure, asserts
Nyanatiloka Mahathera Ven. Nyanatiloka Mahathera (19 February 1878, Wiesbaden, Germany – 28 May 1957, Colombo, Ceylon), born as Anton Walther Florus Gueth, was one of the earliest Westerners in modern times to become a Bhikkhu, a fully ordained Buddhist monk. Ea ...
. According to Collins, "insight into the teaching of ''anattā'' is held to have two major loci in the intellectual and spiritual education of an individual" as s/he progresses along the Path. The first part of this insight is to avoid ''sakkayaditthi'' (Personality Belief), that is converting the "sense of I which is gained from introspection and the fact of physical individuality" into a theoretical belief in a self. "A belief in a (really) existing body" is considered a false belief and a part of the Ten Fetters that must be gradually lost. The second loci is the psychological realization of ''anattā'', or loss of "pride or conceit". This, states Collins, is explained as the conceit of ''asmimana'' or "I am"; (...) what this "conceit" refers to is the fact that for the unenlightened man, all experience and action must necessarily appear phenomenologically as happening to or originating from an "I". When a Buddhist gets more enlightened, this happening to or originating in an "I" or sakkdyaditthi is less. The final attainment of enlightenment is the disappearance of this automatic but illusory "I". The Theravada tradition has long considered the understanding and application of the ''Anattā'' doctrine to be a complex teaching, whose "personal, introjected application has always been thought to be possible only for the specialist, the practising monk". The tradition, states Collins, has "insisted fiercely on ''anattā'' as a doctrinal position", while in practice it may not play much of a role in the daily religious life of most Buddhists. The Theravada doctrine of ''Anattā'', or not-self not-soul, inspire meditative practices for monks, states Donald Swearer, but for the lay Theravada Buddhists in Southeast Asia, the doctrines of ''
kamma Kamma may refer to: *Kamma (caste), a caste or social group found largely in Southern India *Kamma, India, village in Punjab, India *The Pali and Ardhamagadhi term for karma *Bava Kamma, a traditional Jewish civil law procedure (1st volume of Nezi ...
'',
rebirth Rebirth may refer to: Arts, entertainment, and media Film * ''Rebirth'' (2011 film), a 2011 Japanese drama film * ''Rebirth'' (2016 film), a 2016 American thriller film * ''Rebirth'', a documentary film produced by Project Rebirth * ''The Re ...
and ''punna'' (merit) inspire a wide range of ritual practices and ethical behavior. The ''Anattā'' doctrine is key to the concept of
Nibbana Nirvana (Sanskrit: निर्वाण, '; Pali: ') is "blowing out" or "quenching" of the activities of the worldly mind and its related suffering. Nirvana is the goal of the Hinayana and Theravada Buddhist paths, and marks the soteriologica ...
in the Theravada tradition. The liberated nirvana state, states Collins, is the state of ''Anattā'', a state that is neither universally applicable nor can be explained, but can be realized.


Current disputes

The dispute about "self" and "not-self" doctrines has continued throughout the history of Buddhism. In Thai Buddhism, for example, states Paul Williams, some modern era Buddhist scholars have claimed that "Nirvana is indeed the true self", while other Thai Buddhists disagree. For instance, the
Dhammakaya tradition The Dhammakaya tradition or Dhammakaya movement, sometimes spelled as ''Thammakaai movement'', is a Thai Buddhist tradition founded by Luang Pu Sodh Candasaro in the early 20th century. It is associated with several temples descended from Wat ...
in Thailand teaches that it is erroneous to subsume nirvana under the rubric of ''anattā'' (non-self); instead, nirvana is taught to be the "true self" or '' dhammakaya''. The Dhammakaya tradition teaching that nirvana is
atta Atta or ATTA may refer to: * Atta Halilintar, Indonesian YouTuber, singer and entrepreneur * ''Atta'' (ant), a genus of ants in the family Formicidae * ''Atta'' (novel), a 1953 novel by Francis Rufus Bellamy * Atta flour, whole wheat flour made f ...
, or true self, was criticized as heretical in Buddhism in 1994 by Ven. Payutto, a well-known scholar monk, who stated that 'Buddha taught Nibbana as being non-self". The abbot of one major temple in the Dhammakaya tradition, Luang Por Sermchai of Wat Luang Por Sodh Dhammakayaram, argues that it tends to be scholars who hold the view of absolute non-self, rather than Buddhist meditation practitioners. He points to the experiences of prominent forest hermit monks such as Luang Pu Sodh and
Ajahn Mun (หลวงปู่มั่น)Ajahn Mun ( th, อาจารย์มั่น) , dharma_names = Bhuridatto , birth_date = , birth_place = Ban Khambong, Khong Chiam, Ubon Ratchathani, Thailand , death_date = , death_place = Wat Pa Sutth ...
to support the notion of a "true self". Similar interpretations on the "true self" were put forth earlier by the 12th
Supreme Patriarch of Thailand __NOTOC__ The Supreme Patriarch of Thailand or Sangharaja ( th, สังฆราช; ) is the head of the order of Buddhist monks in Thailand. His full title is ''Somdet Phra Saṅgharāja Sakalamahāsaṅghapariṇāyaka'' ( th, สมเด ...
in 1939. According to Williams, the Supreme Patriarch's interpretation echoes the ''
tathāgatagarbha Buddha-nature refers to several related Mahayana Buddhist terms, including '' tathata'' ("suchness") but most notably ''tathāgatagarbha'' and ''buddhadhātu''. ''Tathāgatagarbha'' means "the womb" or "embryo" (''garbha'') of the "thus-gone ...
'' sutras. Several notable teachers of the
Thai Forest Tradition The Kammaṭṭhāna Forest Tradition of Thailand (from pi, kammaṭṭhāna meaning Kammaṭṭhāna, "place of work"), commonly known in the West as the Thai Forest Tradition, is a Parampara, lineage of Theravada Buddhist monasticism. The ...
have also described ideas in contrast to absolute non-self.
Ajahn Maha Bua Ajahn Maha Bua (12 August 191330 January 2011) was a Thai Buddhist monk. He was thought by many of his followers to be an ''arahant'' (someone who has attained full enlightenment). He was a disciple of the esteemed forest master Ajahn Mun Bh ...
, a well known meditation master, described the citta (mind) as being an indestructible reality that does not fall under ''anattā.'' He has stated that not-self is merely a perception that is used to pry one away from infatuation with the concept of a self, and that once this infatuation is gone the idea of not-self must be dropped as well. American monk Thanissaro Bhikkhu of the Thai Forest Tradition describes the Buddha's statements on non-self as a path to awakening rather than a universal truth.
Bhikkhu Bodhi Bhikkhu Bodhi (born December 10, 1944), born Jeffrey Block, is an American Theravada Buddhist monk, ordained in Sri Lanka and currently teaching in the New York and New Jersey area. He was appointed the second president of the Buddhist Publica ...
authored a rejoinder to Thanissaro, agreeing that ''anattā'' is a strategy for awakening but stating that "The reason the teaching of ''anattā'' can serve as a strategy of liberation is precisely because it serves to rectify a misconception about the nature of being, hence an ontological error." Thanissaro Bhikkhu states that the Buddha intentionally set aside the question of whether or not there is a self as a useless question, and goes on to call the phrase "there is no self" the "granddaddy of fake Buddhist quotes". He adds that clinging to the idea that there is no self at all would actually ''prevent'' enlightenment. Thanissaro Bhikkhu points to the Ananda Sutta ( SN 44.10), where the Buddha stays silent when asked whether there is a 'self' or not, as a major cause of the dispute.


Anātman in Mahayana Buddhism

''Anātman'' is one of the main bedrock doctrines of Buddhism, and its discussion is found in the later texts of all Buddhist traditions. There are many different views of ''anātman'' (;
Japanese Japanese may refer to: * Something from or related to Japan, an island country in East Asia * Japanese language, spoken mainly in Japan * Japanese people, the ethnic group that identifies with Japan through ancestry or culture ** Japanese diaspor ...
: 無我 ''muga'';
Korean Korean may refer to: People and culture * Koreans, ethnic group originating in the Korean Peninsula * Korean cuisine * Korean culture * Korean language **Korean alphabet, known as Hangul or Chosŏn'gŭl **Korean dialects and the Jeju language ** ...
: 무아 ''mu-a'') within various Mahayana schools. The early Mahayana Buddhism texts link their discussion of "emptiness" (''śūnyatā'') to ''anātman'' and nirvana. They do so, states Mun-Keat Choong, in three ways: first, in the common sense of a monk's meditative state of emptiness; second, with the main sense of ''anātman'' or 'everything in the world is empty of self'; third, with the ultimate sense of ''Nirvana'' or realization of emptiness and thus an end to rebirth cycles of suffering. The ''anātman'' doctrine is another aspect of ''śūnyatā'', its realization is the nature of the ''nirvana'' state and to an end to rebirths.


Nāgārjuna

The Buddhist philosopher
Nāgārjuna Nāgārjuna . 150 – c. 250 CE (disputed)was an Indian Mahāyāna Buddhist thinker, scholar-saint and philosopher. He is widely considered one of the most important Buddhist philosophers.Garfield, Jay L. (1995), ''The Fundamental Wisdom of ...
(~200 CE), the founder of Madhyamaka (middle way) school of Mahayana Buddhism, analyzed
dharma Dharma (; sa, धर्म, dharma, ; pi, dhamma, italic=yes) is a key concept with multiple meanings in Indian religions, such as Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, Sikhism and others. Although there is no direct single-word translation for '' ...
first as factors of experience. David Kalupahana states that Nāgārjuna analyzed how these experiences relate to "bondage and freedom, action and consequence", and thereafter analyzed the notion of personal self (''ātman''). Nāgārjuna extensively wrote about rejecting the metaphysical entity called ''ātman'' (self, soul), asserting in chapter 18 of his ''
Mūlamadhyamakakārikā The ''Mūlamadhyamakakārikā'' ( sa, मूलमध्यमककारिका, ''Root Verses on the Middle Way''), abbreviated as ''MMK'', is the foundational text of the Madhyamaka school of Mahāyāna Buddhist philosophy. It was compose ...
'' that there is no such substantial entity and that "Buddha taught the doctrine of no-self". Nāgārjuna asserted that the notion of a self is associated with the notion of one's own identity and corollary ideas of pride, selfishness and a sense of psychophysical personality. This is all false, and leads to bondage in his Madhyamaka thought. There can be no pride nor possessiveness, in someone who accepts ''anātman'' and denies "self" which is the sense of personal identity of oneself, others or anything, states Nāgārjuna., Quote: Nāgārjuna, the second century Indian Buddhist philosopher, used ''śūnyatā'' not to characterize the true nature of reality but to deny that anything has any self-existence or reality of its own. Further, all obsessions are avoided when a person accepts emptiness (''śūnyatā''). Nāgārjuna denied there is anything called a self-nature as well as other-nature, emphasizing true knowledge to be comprehending emptiness. Anyone who has not dissociated from their belief in personality in themselves or others, through the concept of self, is in a state of ''avidya'' (ignorance) and caught in the cycle of rebirths and redeaths.


Yogācāra

The texts attributed to the 5th-century Buddhist philosopher
Vasubandhu Vasubandhu (; Tibetan: དབྱིག་གཉེན་ ; floruit, fl. 4th to 5th century CE) was an influential bhikkhu, Buddhist monk and scholar from ''Puruṣapura'' in ancient India, modern day Peshawar, Pakistan. He was a philosopher who ...
of the
Yogācāra Yogachara ( sa, योगाचार, IAST: '; literally "yoga practice"; "one whose practice is yoga") is an influential tradition of Buddhist philosophy and psychology emphasizing the study of cognition, perception, and consciousness through t ...
school similarly discuss ''anātman'' as a fundamental premise of the Buddha. The Vasubandhu interpretations of no-self thesis were challenged by the 7th-century Buddhist scholar
Candrakīrti Chandrakirti (; ; , meaning "glory of the moon" in Sanskrit) or "Chandra" was a Buddhist scholar of the madhyamaka school and a noted commentator on the works of Nagarjuna () and those of his main disciple, Aryadeva. He wrote two influential w ...
, who then offered his own theories on its importance.


Tathāgatagarbha Sutras: Buddha is True Self

Some 1st-millennium CE Buddhist texts suggest concepts that have been controversial because they imply a "self-like" concept. In particular are the ''
tathāgatagarbha sūtras The Tathāgatagarbha sūtras are a group of Mahayana sutras that present the concept of the "womb" or "embryo" (''garbha'') of the tathāgata, the buddha. Every sentient being has the possibility to attain Buddhahood because of the ''tathāgata ...
'', where the title itself means a ''garbha'' (womb, matrix, seed) containing ''Tathāgata'' (Buddha). These
Sutra ''Sutra'' ( sa, सूत्र, translit=sūtra, translit-std=IAST, translation=string, thread)Monier Williams, ''Sanskrit English Dictionary'', Oxford University Press, Entry fo''sutra'' page 1241 in Indian literary traditions refers to an aph ...
s suggest, states Paul Williams, that "all sentient beings contain a Tathagata" as their "essence, core or essential inner nature". The ''tathāgatagarbha'' doctrine, at its earliest probably appeared about the later part of the 3rd century CE, and is verifiable in Chinese translations of 1st millennium CE. Most scholars consider the ''tathāgatagarbha'' doctrine of an "essential nature" in every living being is equivalent to "self", and it contradicts the ''anātman'' doctrines in a vast majority of Buddhist texts, leading scholars to posit that the ''tathāgatagarbha'' sutras were written to promote Buddhism to non-Buddhists. The ''Mahayana'' ''Mahaparinirvana Sutra'' explicitly asserts that the Buddha used the term "self" in order to win over non-Buddhist ascetics. The ''
Ratnagotravibhāga The ''Ratnagotravibhāga'' (Sanskrit, abbreviated as RGV, meaning: ''Analysis of the Jeweled Lineage, Investigating the Jewel Disposition'') and its ''vyākhyā'' commentary (abbreviated RGVV to refer to the RGV verses along with the embedded comm ...
'' (also known as ''Uttaratantra''), another text composed in the first half of 1st millennium CE and translated into Chinese in 511 CE, points out that the teaching of the ''tathāgatagarbha'' doctrine is intended to win sentient beings over to abandoning "self-love" (''atma-sneha'') – considered to be one of the defects by Buddhism. The 6th-century Chinese ''tathāgatagarbha'' translation states that "Buddha has ''shiwo'' (true self) which is beyond being and nonbeing". However, the ''Ratnagotravibhāga'' asserts that the "self" implied in ''tathāgatagarbha'' doctrine is actually "not-self". According to some scholars, the
Buddha-nature Buddha-nature refers to several related Mahayana Buddhist terms, including '' tathata'' ("suchness") but most notably ''tathāgatagarbha'' and ''buddhadhātu''. ''Tathāgatagarbha'' means "the womb" or "embryo" (''garbha'') of the "thus-gone ...
discussed in these sutras does not represent a substantial self; rather, it is a positive language and expression of
śūnyatā ''Śūnyatā'' ( sa, शून्यता, śūnyatā; pi, suññatā; ), translated most often as ''emptiness'', ''vacuity'', and sometimes ''voidness'', is an Indian philosophical concept. Within Hinduism, Jainism, Buddhism and other p ...
"emptiness" and represents the potentiality to realize
Buddhahood In Buddhism, Buddha (; Pali, Sanskrit: 𑀩𑀼𑀤𑁆𑀥, बुद्ध), "awakened one", is a title for those who are awake, and have attained nirvana and Buddhahood through their own efforts and insight, without a teacher to point out ...
through Buddhist practices. Other scholars do in fact detect leanings towards
monism Monism attributes oneness or singleness (Greek: μόνος) to a concept e.g., existence. Various kinds of monism can be distinguished: * Priority monism states that all existing things go back to a source that is distinct from them; e.g., i ...
in these ''tathagatagarbha'' references. Michael Zimmermann sees the notion of an unperishing and eternal self in the Tathagatagarbha Sutra. Zimmermann also avers that "the existence of an eternal, imperishable self, that is, buddhahood, is definitely the basic point of the Tathāgatagarbha Sutra". He further indicates that there is no evident interest found in this sutra in the idea of Emptiness (''sunyata''). Williams states that the "self" in ''tathāgatagarbha'' sutras is actually "non-self", and neither identical nor comparable to the Hindu concepts of ''
brahman In Hinduism, ''Brahman'' ( sa, ब्रह्मन्) connotes the highest universal principle, the ultimate reality in the universe.P. T. Raju (2006), ''Idealistic Thought of India'', Routledge, , page 426 and Conclusion chapter part X ...
'' and self.


Vajrayāna

The ''anātman'' doctrine is extensively discussed in and partly inspires the ritual practices of the Vajrayāna tradition. The Tibetan terms such as ''bdag med'' refer to "without a self, insubstantial, anātman". These discussions, states Jeffrey Hopkins, assert the "non-existence of a permanent, unitary and independent self", and attribute these ideas to the Buddha. The ritual practices in Vajrayāna Buddhism employs the concept of deities, to end self-grasping, and to manifest as a purified, enlightened deity as part of the Vajrayāna path to liberation from rebirths. One such deity is goddess Nairatmya (literally, non-soul, non-self). She symbolizes, states Miranda Shaw, that "self is an illusion" and "all beings and phenomenal appearances lack an abiding self or essence" in Vajrayāna Buddhism.


Difference between Buddhism and Hinduism


Atman in Hinduism

The Buddhist concept of ''anattā'' or ''anātman'' is one of the fundamental differences between mainstream Buddhism and mainstream
Hinduism Hinduism () is an Indian religion or '' dharma'', a religious and universal order or way of life by which followers abide. As a religion, it is the world's third-largest, with over 1.2–1.35 billion followers, or 15–16% of the global p ...
, with the latter asserting that '' ātman'' ("self") exists. In Hinduism, ''Atman'' refers to the essence of human beings, the observing pure awareness or witness-consciousness. It is unaffected by ego, distinct from the individual being (''jivanatman'') embedded in material reality, and characterized by ''Ahamkara'' ('I-making'), mind (''citta'', ''manas''), and all the defiling '' kleshas'' (impurities). Embodied personality changes over time, while ''Atman'' doesn't. According to Jayatilleke, the Upanishadic inquiry fails to find an empirical correlate of the assumed ''Atman'', but nevertheless assumes its existence, and Advaitins "reify consciousness as an eternal self." In contrast, the Buddhist inquiry "is satisfied with the empirical investigation which shows that no such Atman exists because there is no evidence" states Jayatilleke. According to Harvey, in Buddhism the negation of temporal existents is applied even more rigorous than in the Upanishads: Both Buddhism and Hinduism distinguish ego-related "I am, this is mine", from their respective abstract doctrines of "''Anattā''" and "''Atman''". This, states Peter Harvey, may have been an influence of Buddhism on Hinduism.


Anatman and Niratman

The term ''niratman'' appears in the ''
Maitrayaniya Upanishad The ''Maitrayaniya Upanishad'' ( sa, मैत्रायणीय उपनिषद्, ) is an ancient Sanskrit text that is embedded inside the Yajurveda.Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, , pages ...
'' of Hinduism, such as in verses 6.20, 6.21 and 7.4. ''Niratman'' literally means "selfless". The ''niratman'' concept has been interpreted to be analogous to ''anatman'' of Buddhism. The ontological teachings, however, are different. In the Upanishad, states Thomas Wood, numerous positive and negative descriptions of various states – such as ''niratman'' and ''sarvasyatman'' (the self of all) – are used in ''Maitrayaniya Upanishad'' to explain the nondual concept of the "highest Self". According to Ramatirtha, states Paul Deussen, the ''niratman'' state discussion is referring to stopping the recognition of oneself as an individual soul, and reaching the awareness of universal soul or the metaphysical
Brahman In Hinduism, ''Brahman'' ( sa, ब्रह्मन्) connotes the highest universal principle, the ultimate reality in the universe.P. T. Raju (2006), ''Idealistic Thought of India'', Routledge, , page 426 and Conclusion chapter part X ...
.


Correspondence in Pyrrhonism

The Greek philosopher
Pyrrho Pyrrho of Elis (; grc, Πύρρων ὁ Ἠλεῖος, Pyrrhо̄n ho Ēleios; ), born in Elis, Greece, was a Greek philosopher of Classical antiquity, credited as being the first Greek skeptic philosopher and founder of Pyrrhonism. Life ...
traveled to India as part of
Alexander the Great Alexander III of Macedon ( grc, wikt:Ἀλέξανδρος, Ἀλέξανδρος, Alexandros; 20/21 July 356 BC – 10/11 June 323 BC), commonly known as Alexander the Great, was a king of the Ancient Greece, ancient Greek kingdom of Maced ...
's entourage where he was influenced by the Indian
gymnosophists Gymnosophists ( grc, γυμνοσοφισταί, ''gymnosophistaí'', i.e. "naked philosophers" or "naked wise men" (from Greek γυμνός ''gymnós'' "naked" and σοφία ''sophía'' "wisdom")) is the name given by the Greeks to certain anc ...
, which inspired him to create the philosophy of
Pyrrhonism Pyrrhonism is a school of philosophical skepticism founded by Pyrrho in the fourth century BCE. It is best known through the surviving works of Sextus Empiricus, writing in the late second century or early third century CE. History Pyrrho of E ...
. Philologist
Christopher Beckwith Christopher I. Beckwith (born October 23, 1945) is an American philologist and distinguished professor in the Department of Central Eurasian Studies at Indiana University in Bloomington, Indiana. He has a B.A. in Chinese from Ohio State Unive ...
has demonstrated that Pyrrho based his philosophy on his translation of the
three marks of existence In Buddhism, the three marks of existence are three characteristics (Pali: tilakkhaṇa; Sanskrit: त्रिलक्षण trilakṣaṇa) of all existence and beings, namely ''Impermanence#Buddhism, aniccā'' (impermanence), ''Duḥkha, dukkh ...
into Greek, and that ''
adiaphora Adiaphoron (; plural: adiaphora; from the Greek (pl. ), meaning "not different or differentiable") is the negation of ''diaphora'', "difference". In Cynicism, adiaphora represents indifference to the s of life. In Pyrrhonism, it indicates things ...
'' (not logically differentiable, not clearly definable, negating Aristotle's use of "diaphora") reflects Pyrrho's understanding of the Buddhist concept of ''anattā''.


See also

* Ahamkara *
Anicca Impermanence, also known as the philosophical problem of change, is a philosophical concept addressed in a variety of religions and philosophies. In Eastern philosophy it is notable for its role in the Buddhist three marks of existence. It is ...
*
Asceticism Asceticism (; from the el, ἄσκησις, áskesis, exercise', 'training) is a lifestyle characterized by abstinence from sensual pleasures, often for the purpose of pursuing spiritual goals. Ascetics may withdraw from the world for their p ...
*
Atman (Buddhism) Atman or Ātman may refer to: Film * ''Ātman'' (1975 film), a Japanese experimental short film directed by Toshio Matsumoto * ''Atman'' (1997 film), a documentary film directed by Pirjo Honkasalo People * Pavel Atman (born 1987), Russian han ...
*
Atman (Hinduism) Atman or Ātman may refer to: Film * ''Ātman'' (1975 film), a Japanese experimental short film directed by Toshio Matsumoto * ''Atman'' (1997 film), a documentary film directed by Pirjo Honkasalo People * Pavel Atman (born 1987), Russian hand ...
* Buddhist logico-epistemology *
Catuṣkoṭi ''Catuṣkoṭi'' (Sanskrit; Devanagari: चतुष्कोटि, , Sinhalese:චතුස්කෝටිකය) is a logical argument(s) of a 'suite of four discrete functions' or 'an indivisible quaternity' that has multiple applications an ...
* Dukkha * Enlightenment (religious) *
Jiva ''Jiva'' ( sa, जीव, IAST: ) is a living being or any entity imbued with a life force in Hinduism and Jīva (Jainism), Jainism. The word itself originates from the Sanskrit verb-root ''jīv'', which translates as 'to breathe' or 'to live'. ...
*
Nirvana ( , , ; sa, निर्वाण} ''nirvāṇa'' ; Pali: ''nibbāna''; Prakrit: ''ṇivvāṇa''; literally, "blown out", as in an oil lampRichard Gombrich, ''Theravada Buddhism: A Social History from Ancient Benāres to Modern Colombo.' ...
*
Non-essentialism Often synonymous to anti-foundationalism, non-essentialism in philosophy is the non-belief in an essence (from Latin ''esse'') of any given thing, idea, or metaphysical entity (e.g. God). Non-essentialism might also be defined cataphatically (i.e ...
* ''
Mahāparinibbāṇa Sutta The ''Mahāparinibbāṇa Sutta'' is Sutta 16 in the ''Digha Nikaya'', a scripture belonging to the Sutta Pitaka of Theravada Buddhism. It concerns the end of Gautama Buddha's life - his parinibbana - and is the longest sutta of the Pāli Ca ...
'' * ''
Mahaparinirvana Sutra In Buddhism, ''parinirvana'' (Sanskrit: '; Pali: ') is commonly used to refer to nirvana-after-death, which occurs upon the death of someone who has attained ''nirvana'' during their lifetime. It implies a release from '' '', karma and rebirth a ...
'' *
Ship of Theseus The Ship of Theseus is a thought experiment about whether an object that has had all of its original components replaced remains the same object. According to legend, Theseus, the mythical Greek founder-king of Athens, had rescued the children of ...
– a related view in ancient
Greek philosophy Ancient Greek philosophy arose in the 6th century BC, marking the end of the Greek Dark Ages. Greek philosophy continued throughout the Hellenistic period and the period in which Greece and most Greek-inhabited lands were part of the Roman Empir ...
*
Skandhas (Sanskrit) or ( Pāḷi) means "heaps, aggregates, collections, groupings". In Buddhism, it refers to the five aggregates of clinging (), the five material and mental factors that take part in the rise of craving and clinging. They are als ...
*
Tathagatagarbha Buddha-nature refers to several related Mahayana Buddhist terms, including '' tathata'' ("suchness") but most notably ''tathāgatagarbha'' and ''buddhadhātu''. ''Tathāgatagarbha'' means "the womb" or "embryo" (''garbha'') of the "thus-gone ...
*
Teletransportation paradox The teletransportation paradox or teletransport paradox (also known in alternative forms as the duplicates paradox) is a thought experiment on the philosophy of identity that challenges common intuitions on the nature of self and consciousness, ...


Notes


References


Sources

* * * * * Dalai Lama (1997), ''Healing Anger: The Power of Patience from a Buddhist Perspective''. Translated by Geshe Thupten Jinpa. Snow Lion Publications. Source:

(accessed: Sunday March 25, 2007) * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * K. R. Norman (1981)
A Note on Attā in the Alagaddūpama Sutta
. ''Studies in Indian Philosophy'' LD Series, 84 – 1981 * * * * * * * * * * * *


External links


''Nirvana Sutra''
Kosho Yamamoto's English translation of the ''
Mahāyāna Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra The ''Mahāyāna Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra'' (Sanskrit; , ; Vietnamese: ''Kinh Đại Bát Niết Bàn'') or ''Nirvana Sutra'' is Mahāyāna Buddhist sutra of the Buddha-nature genre. Its precise date of origin is uncertain, but its early form ...
'' {{DEFAULTSORT:Anatta Buddhist philosophical concepts Self Nondualism