The Banu Qurayza ( ar, بنو قريظة, he, בני קוריט'ה; alternate spellings include Quraiza, Qurayzah, Quraytha, and the archaic Koreiza) were a Jewish tribe which lived in northern Arabia, at the oasis of

Medina Medina,, ', "the radiant city"; or , ', (), "the city" officially Al Madinah Al Munawwarah (, , Turkish: Medine-i Münevvere) and also commonly simplified as Madīnah or Madinah (, ), is the Holiest sites in Islam, second-holiest city in Islam, ...

(previously known as Yathrib). They were one of the three major Jewish tribes of the city, along with the

Banu Qaynuqa The Banu Qaynuqa ( ar, بنو قينقاع; he, בני קינוקאע; also spelled Banu Kainuka, Banu Kaynuka, Banu Qainuqa, Banu Qaynuqa) was one of the three main Jewish tribes living in the 7th century of Medina, now in Saudi Arabia. The grea ...

and

Banu Nadir The Banu Nadir ( ar, بَنُو ٱلنَّضِير, he, בני נצ'יר) were a Jewish Arab tribe which lived in northern Arabia at the oasis of Medina until the 7th century. The tribe refused to convert to Islam as Muhammad had ordered it to ...

, before their elimination by the

Islamic Islam (; ar, ۘالِإسلَام, , ) is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion centred primarily around the Quran, a religious text considered by Muslims to be the direct word of God (or '' Allah'') as it was revealed to Muhammad, the mai ...

prophet

Muhammad Muhammad ( ar, مُحَمَّد; 570 – 8 June 632 Common Era, CE) was an Arab religious, social, and political leader and the founder of Islam. According to Muhammad in Islam, Islamic doctrine, he was a prophet Divine inspiration, di ...

. Jewish tribes reportedly arrived in

Hijaz The Hejaz (, also ; ar, ٱلْحِجَاز, al-Ḥijāz, lit=the Barrier, ) is a region in the west of Saudi Arabia. It includes the cities of Mecca, Medina, Jeddah, Tabuk, Yanbu, Taif, and Baljurashi. It is also known as the "Western Provinc ...

in the wake of the Jewish-Roman wars and introduced agriculture, putting them in a culturally, economically and politically dominant position.Peters, ''Muhammad and the Origins of Islam'', p. 192f. However, in the 5th century, the

Banu Aws The Banū Aws ( ar, بنو أوس , "Sons of Aws") or simply Aws ( ar, أوس, also romanised as Aus) was one of the main Arab tribes of Medina. The other was Khazraj, and the two, constituted the Ansar ("helpers f Muhammad) after the Hijr ...

and the

Banu Khazraj The Banu Khazraj ( ar, بنو خزرج) is a large Arab tribe based in Medina. They were also in Medina during Muhammad's era. The Banu Khazraj are a South Arabian tribe that were pressured out of South Arabia in the Karib'il Watar 7th century ...

, two Arab tribes that had arrived from

Yemen Yemen (; ar, ٱلْيَمَن, al-Yaman), officially the Republic of Yemen,, ) is a country in Western Asia. It is situated on the southern end of the Arabian Peninsula, and borders Saudi Arabia to the Saudi Arabia–Yemen border, north and ...

, gained dominance. When these two tribes became embroiled in conflict with each other, the Jewish tribes, now clients or allies of the Arabs, fought on different sides, the Qurayza siding with the Aws.Watt, "Muhammad", In: The Cambridge History of Islam, Vol. 1A, pp. 39-49 In 622, Muhammad migrated to Medina after successfully negotiating with the Khazraj—to which his great-grandmother belonged—and the Aws to mediate their tribal conflicts in the city. Previously, in

Mecca Mecca (; officially Makkah al-Mukarramah, commonly shortened to Makkah ()) is a city and administrative center of the Mecca Province of Saudi Arabia, and the Holiest sites in Islam, holiest city in Islam. It is inland from Jeddah on the Red ...

, tensions had arisen between Muhammad and the

Quraysh The Quraysh ( ar, قُرَيْشٌ) were a grouping of Arab clans that historically inhabited and controlled the city of Mecca and its Kaaba. The Islamic prophet Muhammad was born into the Hashim clan of the tribe. Despite this, many of the Qur ...

following his attacks on their faith after they had previously shown little interest in his proselytizing activities. After the migration, Muhammad became fond of raiding Quraysh trade caravans and plundering their goods, leading to armed conflicts between the two. Muhammad also tried to convince the Jewish population of Medina that he was their prophet, but failed and was criticized, in part, for the inconsistency of his

Quran The Quran (, ; Standard Arabic: , Classical Arabic, Quranic Arabic: , , 'the recitation'), also romanized Qur'an or Koran, is the central religious text of Islam, believed by Muslims to be a revelation in Islam, revelation from God in Islam, ...

with the

Jewish scriptures The Hebrew Bible or Tanakh (;"Tanach"
''

direction of the Islamic prayer from

Jerusalem Jerusalem (; he, יְרוּשָׁלַיִם ; ar, القُدس ) (combining the Biblical and common usage Arabic names); grc, Ἱερουσαλήμ/Ἰεροσόλυμα, Hierousalḗm/Hierosóluma; hy, Երուսաղեմ, Erusałēm. i ...

to the

Kaaba The Kaaba (, ), also spelled Ka'bah or Kabah, sometimes referred to as al-Kaʿbah al-Musharrafah ( ar, ٱلْكَعْبَة ٱلْمُشَرَّفَة, lit=Honored Ka'bah, links=no, translit=al-Kaʿbah al-Musharrafah), is a building at the c ...

in Mecca, and sometime later to the expulsion of the Banu Qaynuqa and Banu Nadir from Medina by him. After the

Battle of the Trench The Battle of the Trench ( ar, غزوة الخندق, Ghazwat al-Khandaq), also known as the Battle of Khandaq ( ar, معركة الخندق, Ma’rakah al-Khandaq) and the Battle of the Confederates ( ar, غزوة الاحزاب, Ghazwat al- ...

, Muhammad was reportedly visited by

Gabriel In Abrahamic religions (Judaism, Christianity and Islam), Gabriel (); Greek: grc, Γαβριήλ, translit=Gabriḗl, label=none; Latin: ''Gabriel''; Coptic: cop, Ⲅⲁⲃⲣⲓⲏⲗ, translit=Gabriêl, label=none; Amharic: am, ገብር� ...

, who directed him to attack the Qurayza. Although the tribe had previously helped him by lending him their tools during the construction of the trench to hamper the advance of the Meccans, he later accused them of having negotiated with his enemy to surrender peacefully and aided them. Muhammad then besieged the Qurayza. The tribe initially offered to surrender and leave their land, but requested to take one camel load of belongings per person. When Muhammad refused, they asked to be allowed to leave without any property. Muhammad, however, insisted that they surrender unconditionally. The Qurayza eventually surrendered, and their men were beheaded,Ramadan, ''In the Footsteps of the Prophet'', p. 140f.Brown, ''A New Introduction to Islam'', p. 81.Lings, ''Muhammad: His Life Based on the Earliest Sources'', p. 229-233. their women and children were enslaved, some were sold, and their property was divided among the Muslims.Peterson, ''Muhammad: the prophet of God'', p. 125-127.

History in pre-Islamic Arabia

Early history

Extant sources provide no conclusive evidence whether the Banu Qurayza were ethnically Jewish or

Arab The Arabs (singular: Arab; singular ar, عَرَبِيٌّ, DIN 31635: , , plural ar, عَرَب, DIN 31635: , Arabic pronunciation: ), also known as the Arab people, are an ethnic group mainly inhabiting the Arab world in Western Asia, ...

converts to

Judaism Judaism ( he, ''Yahăḏūṯ'') is an Abrahamic, monotheistic, and ethnic religion comprising the collective religious, cultural, and legal tradition and civilization of the Jewish people. It has its roots as an organized religion in the ...

.Watt, W. Montgomery, "Kurayza, Banu", ''

Encyclopaedia of Islam The ''Encyclopaedia of Islam'' (''EI'') is an encyclopaedia of the academic discipline of Islamic studies published by Brill. It is considered to be the standard reference work in the field of Islamic studies. The first edition was published in ...

'' (1986), Vol. 5 p. 436 . Just like the other Jews of Yathrib, the Qurayza claimed to be of

Israelite The Israelites (; , , ) were a group of Semitic-speaking tribes in the ancient Near East who, during the Iron Age, inhabited a part of Canaan. The earliest recorded evidence of a people by the name of Israel appears in the Merneptah Stele o ...

descentWatt, ''

'', "Al-Madina". and observed the commandments of Judaism, but adopted many Arab customs and intermarried with Arabs. They were dubbed the "priestly tribe" (''kahinan'' in Arabic from the Hebrew

kohanim Kohen ( he, , ''kōhēn'', , "priest", pl. , ''kōhănīm'', , "priests") is the Hebrew word for "priest", used in reference to the Aaronic priesthood, also called Aaronites or Aaronides. Levitical priests or ''kohanim'' are traditionally be ...

).''

Encyclopedia Judaica The ''Encyclopaedia Judaica'' is a 22-volume English-language encyclopedia of the Jewish people, Judaism, and Israel. It covers diverse areas of the Jewish world and civilization, including Jewish history of all eras, culture, holidays, langua ...

'', "Qurayza".

Ibn Ishaq Muḥammad ibn Isḥāq ibn Yasār ibn Khiyār (; according to some sources, ibn Khabbār, or Kūmān, or Kūtān, ar, محمد بن إسحاق بن يسار بن خيار, or simply ibn Isḥaq, , meaning "the son of Isaac"; died 767) was an 8 ...

, the author of the traditional Muslim biography of Muhammad, traces their genealogy to

Aaron According to Abrahamic religions, Aaron ''′aharon'', ar, هارون, Hārūn, Greek (Septuagint): Ἀαρών; often called Aaron the priest ()., group="note" ( or ; ''’Ahărōn'') was a prophet, a high priest, and the elder brother of ...

and further to

Abraham Abraham, ; ar, , , name=, group= (originally Abram) is the common Hebrew patriarch of the Abrahamic religions, including Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. In Judaism, he is the founding father of the special relationship between the Jew ...

Guillaume, ''The Life of Muhammad: A Translation of Ibn Ishaq's Sirat Rasul Allah'', p. 7-9. but gives only eight intermediaries between Aaron and the purported founder of the Qurayza tribe. In the 5th century CE, the Qurayza lived in Yathrib together with two other major Jewish tribes, the

and

Al-Isfahani Abu al-Fath Mahmud ibn Muhammad ibn Qasim ibn Fadl al-Isfahani , Latinized 𝐀𝐛𝐚𝐥𝐩𝐡𝐚𝐭𝐮𝐬, 𝐀𝐬𝐩𝐡𝐚𝐡𝐚𝐧𝐞𝐧𝐬𝐢𝐬, was a 10th-century Persian mathematician. He flourished probably around 98 ...

writes in his 10th century collection of Arabic poetry that Jews arrived in Hijaz in the wake of the Jewish-Roman wars; the Qurayza settled in Mahzur, a

wadi Wadi ( ar, وَادِي, wādī), alternatively ''wād'' ( ar, وَاد), North African Arabic Oued, is the Arabic term traditionally referring to a valley. In some instances, it may refer to a wet (ephemeral) riverbed that contains water onl ...

in Al Harrah. The 15th century Muslim scholar Al-Samhudi lists a dozen other Jewish clans living in the town of which the most important one was Banu Hadl, closely aligned with the Banu Qurayza. The Jews introduced agriculture to Yathrib, growing

date palm ''Phoenix dactylifera'', commonly known as date or date palm, is a flowering plant species in the palm family, Arecaceae, cultivated for its edible sweet fruit called dates. The species is widely cultivated across northern Africa, the Middle Eas ...

s and

cereals A cereal is any grass cultivated for the edible components of its grain (botanically, a type of fruit called a caryopsis), composed of the endosperm, germ, and bran. Cereal grain crops are grown in greater quantities and provide more food en ...

, and this cultural and economic advantage enabled the Jews to dominate the local Arabs politically.

Al-Waqidi Abu `Abdullah Muhammad Ibn ‘Omar Ibn Waqid al-Aslami (Arabic ) (c. 130 – 207 AH; c. 747 – 823 AD) was a historian commonly referred to as al-Waqidi (Arabic: ). His surname is derived from his grandfather's name Waqid and thus he became fa ...

wrote that the Banu Qurayza were people of high lineage and of properties, "whereas we were but an Arab tribe who did not possess any palm trees nor vineyards, being people of only sheep and camels."

Ibn Khordadbeh Abu'l-Qasim Ubaydallah ibn Abdallah ibn Khordadbeh ( ar, ابوالقاسم عبیدالله ابن خرداذبه; 820/825–913), commonly known as Ibn Khordadbeh (also spelled Ibn Khurradadhbih; ), was a high-ranking Persian bureaucrat and ...

later reported that during the

Persia Iran, officially the Islamic Republic of Iran, and also called Persia, is a country located in Western Asia. It is bordered by Iraq and Turkey to the west, by Azerbaijan and Armenia to the northwest, by the Caspian Sea and Turkmeni ...

n domination in

, the Banu Qurayza served as tax collectors for the

shah Shah (; fa, شاه, , ) is a royal title that was historically used by the leading figures of Iranian monarchies.Yarshater, EhsaPersia or Iran, Persian or Farsi, ''Iranian Studies'', vol. XXII no. 1 (1989) It was also used by a variety of ...

Account of the king of Himyar

Ibn Ishaq tells of a conflict between the last

ite king of

Himyar The Himyarite Kingdom ( ar, مملكة حِمْيَر, Mamlakat Ḥimyar, he, ממלכת חִמְיָר), or Himyar ( ar, حِمْيَر, ''Ḥimyar'', / 𐩹𐩧𐩺𐩵𐩬) ( fl. 110 BCE–520s CE), historically referred to as the Homerit ...

and the residents of Yathrib. When the king was passing by the oasis, the residents killed his son, and the Yemenite ruler threatened to exterminate the people and cut down the palms. According to Ibn Ishaq, he was stopped from doing so by two

rabbi A rabbi () is a spiritual leader or religious teacher in Judaism. One becomes a rabbi by being ordained by another rabbi – known as ''semikha'' – following a course of study of Jewish history and texts such as the Talmud. The basic form of ...

s from the Banu Qurayza, who implored the king to spare the oasis because it was the place "to which a

prophet In religion, a prophet or prophetess is an individual who is regarded as being in contact with a divine being and is said to speak on behalf of that being, serving as an intermediary with humanity by delivering messages or teachings from the s ...

of the

would migrate in time to come, and it would be his home and resting-place". The Yemenite king thus did not destroy the town and converted to Judaism. He took the rabbis with him, and in

they reportedly recognized the

as a temple built by Abraham and advised the king "to do what the people of Mecca did: to circumambulate the temple, to venerate and honor it, to shave his head and to behave with all humility until he had left its precincts." On approaching Yemen, tells Ibn Ishaq, the rabbis demonstrated to the local people a miracle by coming out of a fire unscathed and the Yemenites accepted Judaism.

Arrival of the Aws and Khazraj

The situation changed after two Arab tribes named

and

arrived to Yathrib from

. At first, these tribes were clients of the Jews, but toward the end of the 5th century CE, they revolted and became independent. Most modern historians accept the claim of the Muslim sources that after the revolt, the Jewish tribes became clients of the Aws and the Khazraj.

William Montgomery Watt William Montgomery Watt (14 March 1909 – 24 October 2006) was a Scottish Orientalist, historian, academic and Anglican priest. From 1964 to 1979, he was Professor of Arabic and Islamic studies at the University of Edinburgh. Watt was one of ...

however considers this clientship to be unhistorical prior to 627 and maintains that the Jews retained a measure of political independence after the Arab revolt. Eventually, the Aws and the Khazraj became hostile to each other. They had been fighting possibly for around a hundred years before 620 and at least since 570s. The Banu Nadir and the Banu Qurayza were allied with the Aws, while the Banu Qaynuqa sided with the Khazraj. There are reports of the constant conflict between Banu Qurayza and Banu Nadir, the two allies of Aws, yet the sources often refer to these two tribes as "brothers". Aws and Khazraj and their Jewish allies fought a total of four wars. The last and bloodiest altercation was the

Battle of Bu'ath A battle is an occurrence of combat in warfare between opposing military units of any number or size. A war usually consists of multiple battles. In general, a battle is a military engagement that is well defined in duration, area, and force ...

, the outcome of which was inconclusive. The Qurayza appear as a tribe of considerable military importance: they possessed large numbers of weaponry, as upon their surrender 1,500

sword A sword is an edged, bladed weapon intended for manual cutting or thrusting. Its blade, longer than a knife or dagger, is attached to a hilt and can be straight or curved. A thrusting sword tends to have a straighter blade with a pointed ti ...

s, 2,000 lances, 300 suits of armor, and 500 shields were later seized by the Muslims.Heck, "Arabia Without Spices: An Alternate Hypothesis", p. 547-567.

Meir J. Kister Meir Jacob Kister ( he, מאיר יעקב קיסטר‎ 16 January 1914 in Mościska – 16 August 2010 in Jerusalem) was a Jewish Arabist from Poland who worked in Israel. Kister went to school in Sanok and Przemyśl Przemyśl (; yi, פשע ...

notes that these quantities are "disproportionate relative to the number of fighting men" and conjectures that the "Qurayza used to sell (or lend) some of the weapons kept in their storehouses". He also mentions that the Qurayza were addressed as ''Ahlu al-halqa'' ("people of the weapons") by the Quraysh and notes that these weapons "strengthened their position and prestige in the tribal society".

Arrival of Muhammad

The continuing feud between the Aws and the Khazraj was probably the chief cause for several emissaries to invite

to Yathrib in order to adjudicate in disputed cases. Ibn Ishaq recorded that after his arrival in 622, Muhammad established a compact, the

Constitution of Medina The Constitution of Medina (, ''Dustūr al-Madīna''), also known as the Charter of Medina ( ar, صحيفة المدينة, ''Ṣaḥīfat al-Madīnah''; or: , ''Mīthāq al-Madina'' "Covenant of Medina"), is the modern name given to a document be ...

, which committed the Jewish and Muslim tribes to mutual cooperation. The nature of this document as recorded by Ibn Ishaq and transmitted by

Ibn Hisham Abū Muḥammad ʿAbd al-Malik ibn Hishām ibn Ayyūb al-Ḥimyarī al-Muʿāfirī al-Baṣrī ( ar, أبو محمد عبدالملك بن هشام ابن أيوب الحميري المعافري البصري; died 7 May 833), or Ibn Hisham, e ...

is the subject of dispute among modern historians, many of whom maintain that this "treaty" is possibly a collage of agreements, of different dates, and that it is not clear when they were made.Firestone, ''Jihad: The Origin of Holy War in Islam'', p. 118, 170. For opinions disputing the early date of the Constitution of Medina, see e.g., Peters, ''Muhammad and the Origins of Islam'', p. 119.Alford Welch, ''Encyclopaedia of Islam'', "Muhammad". Watt holds that the Qurayza and Nadir were probably mentioned in an earlier version of the Constitution requiring the parties not to support an enemy against each other. Aside from the general agreements, the chronicles by Ibn Ishaq and al-Waqidi contain a report that after his arrival, Muhammad signed a special treaty with the Qurayza chief Ka'b ibn Asad. Ibn Ishaq gives no sources, while al-Waqidi refers to Ka’b ibn Malik of Salima, a clan hostile to the Jews, and Mummad ibn Ka’b, the son of a Qurayza boy who was sold into slavery in the aftermath of the siege and subsequently became a Muslim. The sources are suspect of being against the Qurayza and therefore the historicity of this agreement between Muhammad and the Banu Qurayza is open to grave doubt. Among modern historians, R. B. Serjeant supports the historicity of this document and suggests that the Jews knew "of the penalty for breaking faith with Muhammad".Serjeant, p. 36. On the other hand,

Norman Stillman Norman Stillman, Bar-Ilan University Norman Arthur Stillman, also Noam (נועם, in Hebrew), b. 1945, is an American academic, historian, and Orientalist, serving as the emeritus Schusterman-Josey Professor and emeritus Chair of Judaic Histo ...

argues that the Muslim historians had invented this agreement in order to justify the subsequent treatment of the Qurayza.Stillman, p. 14-16. Watt also rejects the existence of such a special agreement but notes that the Jews were bound by the aforementioned general agreement and by their alliance to the two Arab tribes not to support an enemy against Muhammad. Serjeant agrees with this and opines that the Qurayza were aware of the two parts of a pact made between Muhammad and the Jewish tribes in the confederation according to which "Jews having their religion and the Muslims having their religion excepting anyone who acts wrongfully and commits crime/acts treacherously/breaks an agreement, for he but slays himself and the people of his house." During the first few months after Muhammad's arrival in Medina, the Banu Qurayza were involved in a dispute with the Banu Nadir: The more powerful Nadir rigorously applied ''

lex talionis "An eye for an eye" ( hbo, עַיִן תַּחַת עַיִן, ) is a commandment found in the Book of Exodus 21:23–27 expressing the principle of reciprocal justice measure for measure. The principle exists also in Babylonian law. In Roman c ...

'' against the Qurayza while not allowing it being enforced against themselves. Further, the

blood money Blood money may refer to: * Blood money (restitution), money paid to the family of a murder victim Films * Blood Money (1917 film), ''Blood Money'' (1917 film), a film starring Harry Carey * Blood Money (1921 film), ''Blood Money'' (1921 film ...

paid for killing a man of the Qurayza was only half of the blood-money required for killing a man of the Nadir, placing the Qurayza in a socially inferior position. The Qurayza called on Muhammad as arbitrator, who delivered the surah and judged that the Nadir and Qurayza should be treated alike in the application of lex talionis and raised the assessment of the Qurayza to the full amount of blood money.Serjeant, p. 36.Nomani, ''Sirat al-Nabi'', p. 382. Tensions quickly mounted between the growing numbers of Muslims and Jewish tribes, while Muhammad found himself at war with his native Meccan tribe of the Quraysh. In 624, after his victory over the Meccans in the

Battle of Badr The Battle of Badr ( ar, غَزْوَةُ بَدِرْ ), also referred to as The Day of the Criterion (, ) in the Quran, Qur'an and by Muslims, was fought on 13 March 624 CE (17 Ramadan (calendar month), Ramadan, 2 Anno Hegirae, AH), near the ...

, Banu Qaynuqa threatened

's political position and assaulted a Muslim woman which led to their expulsion from Medina for breaking the peace treaty of

.Guillaume 363, Stillman 122, ibn Kathir 2 The Qurayza remained passive during the whole Qaynuqa affair, apparently because the Qaynuqa were historically allied with the Khazraj, while the Qurayza were the allies of the Aws. Soon afterwards, Muhammad came into conflict with the Banu Nadir. He had one of the Banu Nadir's chiefs, the poet

Ka'b ibn al-Ashraf Ka'b ibn al-Ashraf ( ar, كعب بن الأشرف; died ) was, according Islamic texts, a Jews, Jewish leader and poet in Medina. Biography Ka'b was born to a father from the Arab Tayy tribe and a mother from the Jewish Banu Nadir tribe. His fat ...

, assassinatedRubin, "The Assassination of Kaʿb b. al-Ashraf", p. 65-71. and after the

Battle of Uhud The Battle of Uhud ( ar, غَزْوَة أُحُد, ) was fought on Saturday, 23 March 625 AD (7 Shawwal, 3 AH), in the valley north of Mount Uhud.Watt (1974) p. 136. The Qurayshi Meccans, led by Abu Sufyan ibn Harb, commanded an army of 3,000 m ...

accused the tribe of treachery and plotting against his life and expelled them from the city.Stillman, p. 14. The Qurayza remained passive during this conflict, according to R. B. Serjeant because of the blood money issue related above.

Battle of the Trench

In 627, the Meccans, accompanied by tribal allies as well as the Banu Nadir - who had been very active in supporting the Meccans - marched against Medina - the Muslim stronghold - and laid siege to it. It is unclear whether their treaty with Muhammad obliged the Qurayza to help him defend Medina, or merely to remain neutral, according to Ramadan, they had signed an agreement of mutual assistance with Muhammad. The Qurayza did not participate in the fighting - according to David Norcliffe, because they were offended by attacks against Jews in Muhammad's preaching - but lent tools to the town's defenders. According to Al-Waqidi, the Banu Qurayza helped the defense effort of Medina by supplying spades, picks, and baskets for the excavation of the defensive trench the defenders of Medina had dug in preparation. According to Watt, the Banu Qurayza "seem to have tried to remain neutral" in the battleWatt, ''Muhammad at Medina'', p. 36-38. but later changed their attitude when a Jew from Khaybar persuaded them that Muhammad was sure to be overwhelmedWatt, ''Muhammad, Prophet and Statesman'', p. 170-176. and though they did not commit any act overtly hostile to Muhammad, according to Watt, they entered into negotiations with the invading army. Ibn Ishaq writes that during the siege, the Qurayza readmitted

Huyayy ibn Akhtab Huyayy ibn Akhtab ( ar, حيي بن أخطب; he, חי בן אחיטוב) was a chief of the Banu Nadir, a Jewish tribe of Medina in pre-Islamic Arabia. Biography Family His ancestry was Huyayy ibn Akhtab ibn Sa‘yah ibn Tha‘labah ibn ‘Ubay ...

, the chief of the Banu Nadir whom Muhammad had exiled and who had instigated the alliance of his tribe with the besieging Quraysh and Ghatafan tribes. According to Ibn Ishaq, Huyayy persuaded the Qurayza chief Ka'b ibn Asad to help the Meccans conquer Medina. Ka'b was, according to Al-Waqidi's account, initially reluctant to break the contract and argued that Muhammad never broke any contract with them or exposed them to any shame, but decided to support the Meccans after Huyayy had promised to join the Qurayza in Medina if the besieging army would return to Mecca without having killed Muhammad.

Ibn Kathir Abū al-Fiḍā’ ‘Imād ad-Dīn Ismā‘īl ibn ‘Umar ibn Kathīr al-Qurashī al-Damishqī (Arabic: إسماعيل بن عمر بن كثير القرشي الدمشقي أبو الفداء عماد; – 1373), known as Ibn Kathīr (, was ...

and al-Waqidi report that Huyayy tore into pieces the agreement between Ka'b and Muhammad. Rumors of this one-sided renunciation of the pact spread and were confirmed by Muhammad's emissaries,

Sa'd ibn Mua'dh Saʿd ibn Muʿādh ( ar, سعد ابن معاذ) () was the chief of the Aws tribe in Medina and one of the prominent companions of the Islamic Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon Him). He died shortly after the Battle of the Trench. Family Sa'd w ...

and

Sa'd ibn Ubadah Saad ( ar, سعد , translit=Saʿd) is a common male Arabic given name which means 'friend / companion'. The name stems from the Arabic verb ( 'to be happy, fortunate or lucky'). ''Saad'' is the stem of variant given names Suad and Sa‘id. ...

, leading men of the Aws and Khazraj respectively. Sa'd ibn Mua'dh reportedly issued threats against the Qurayza but was restrained by his colleague. As this would have allowed the besiegers to access the city and thus meant the collapse of the defenders' strategy, Muhammad "became anxious about their conduct and sent some of the leading Muslims to talk to them; the result was disquieting." According to Ibn Ishaq, Muhammad sent Nuaym ibn Masud, a well-respected elder of the Ghatafan who had secretly converted to Islam, to go to Muhammad's enemies and sow discord among them. Nuaym went to the Qurayza and advised them to join the hostilities against Muhammad only if the besiegers provide

hostage A hostage is a person seized by an abductor in order to compel another party, one which places a high value on the liberty, well-being and safety of the person seized, such as a relative, employer, law enforcement or government to act, or ref ...

s from among their chiefs. He then hurried to the invaders and warned them that if the Qurayza asked for hostages, it is because they intended to turn them over to the Medinan defenders. When the representatives of the Quraysh and the Ghatafan came to the Qurayza, asking for support in the planned decisive battle with Muhammad, the Qurayza indeed demanded hostages. The representatives of the besiegers refused, breaking down negotiations and resulting in the Banu Qurayza becoming extremely distrustful of the besieging army. The Qurayza did not take any actions to support them until the besieging forces retreated. Thus the threat of a second front against the defenders never materialised.

Siege and surrender

After the Meccans' withdrawal, Muhammad then led his forces against the Banu Qurayza, who retreated into their stronghold and endured the siege for 25 days. As their morale waned, Ka'b ibn Asad suggested three alternative ways out of their predicament: embrace Islam; kill their own children and women, then rush out for a charge to either win or die; or make a surprise attack on the

Sabbath In Abrahamic religions, the Sabbath () or Shabbat (from Hebrew ) is a day set aside for rest and worship. According to the Book of Exodus, the Sabbath is a day of rest on the seventh day, commanded by God to be kept as a holy day of rest, as G ...

. The Banu Qurayza accepted none of these alternatives. Instead they asked to confer with Abu Lubaba, one of their allies from the Aws. According to Ibn Ishaq, Abu Lubaba felt pity for the women and children of the tribe who were crying and when asked whether the Qurayza should surrender to Muhammad, advised them to do so. However he also "made a sign with his hand toward his throat, indicating that heir fateat the hands of the Prophet would be slaughter".Guillaume, p. 461-464.Peters, ''Muhammad and the Origins of Islam'', p. 222-224.Stillman, p. 137-141.Inamdar, ''Muhammad and the Rise of Islam'', p. 166f. The next morning, the Banu Qurayza surrendered and the Muslims seized their stronghold and their stores. The men - Ibn Ishaq numbers between 400 and 900 - were bound and placed under the custody of one

Muhammad ibn Maslamah Muhammad ibn Maslamah al-Ansari ( ar, محمد بن مسلمة الأنصاري, Muḥammad ibn Maslamah al-Anṣārī; 588 or 591 – 663 or 666) was a companion of the Islamic prophet Muhammad. He was known as "The Knight of Allah's Prophet ...

, who had killed

, while the women and children - numbering about 1,000Kister, "The Massacre of the Banu Quraiza", p. 93f. - were placed under Abdullah ibn Sallam, a former rabbi who had converted to Islam.Muir, p. 272-274.Ramadan, p. 145.

Killing of the Banu Qurayza

The circumstances of the Qurayza's demise have been related by

and other Muslim historians who relied upon his account. According to Watt, Peters and Stillman, the Qurayza surrendered to Muhammad's judgement - a move Watt classifies as unconditional. The Aws, who wanted to honor their old alliance with the Qurayza, asked Muhammad to treat the Qurayza leniently as he had previously treated the Qaynuqa for the sake of Ibn Ubayy. (Arab custom required support of an ally, independent of the ally's conduct to a third party.) Muhammad then suggested to bring the case before an arbitrator chosen from the Aws, to which both the Aws and the Qurayza agreed to. Muhammad then appointed

to decide the fate of the Jewish tribe.Adil, ''Muhammad: The Messenger of Islam'', p. 395f. According to Hashmi, Buchanan and Moore, the tribe agreed to surrender on the condition of a Muslim arbitrator of their choosing. According to Khadduri (also cited by Abu-Nimer), "both parties agreed to submit their dispute to a person chosen by them"Abu-Nimer, "A Framework for Nonviolence and Peacebuilding in Islam", p. 247. in accordance with the Arabian tradition of arbitration. Muir holds that the Qurayza surrendered on the condition that "their fate was decided by their allies, the Bani Aws". In all accounts, the appointed arbitrator was

, a leading man among the Aws. During the Battle of the Trench, he had been one of Muhammad's emissaries to the Qurayza (see above) and now was dying from a wound he had received later in the battle. When Sa'd arrived, his fellow Aws pleaded for leniency towards the Qurayza and on his request pledged that they would abide by his decision. He then decreed that "the men should be killed, the property divided, and the women and children taken as captives". Muhammad approved of the ruling, calling it similar to God's judgment.

Chiragh Ali Moulví Cherágh Ali (1844-1895) (also spelled Chirágh) was an Indian Muslim scholar of the late 19th century. As a colleague of Sir Sayyid Ahmad Khan he made a contribution to the school of Muslim Modernists and presented reformative thinking ...

argued that this statement may have referred to "king" or "ruler" rather than God. Sa'd dismissed the pleas of the Aws, according to Watt because being close to death and concerned with his afterlife, he put what he considered "his duty to God and the

Muslim community ' (; ar, أمة ) is an Arabic word meaning "community". It is distinguished from ' ( ), which means a nation with common ancestry or geography. Thus, it can be said to be a supra-national community with a common history. It is a synonym for ' ...

" before tribal allegiance. Tariq Ramadan argues that Muhammad deviated from his earlier, more lenient treatment of prisoners as this was seen "as sign of weakness if not madness", Peterson concurs that the Muslims wanted to deter future treachery by setting an example with severe punishment. Lings reports that Sa'ad feared that if expelled, the Qurayza would join the Nadir in the fight against the Muslims. According to Stillman, Muhammad chose Sa'd so as not to pronounce the judgment himself, after the precedents he had set with the Banu Qaynuqa and the Banu Nadir: "Sa'd took the hint and condemned the adult males to death and the hapless women and children to slavery." Furthermore, Stillman infers from Abu Lubaba's gesture that Muhammad had decided the fate of the Qurayza even before their surrender. Ibn Ishaq describes the killing of the Banu Qurayza men as follows: Several accounts note

Muhammad's companions The Companions of the Prophet ( ar, اَلصَّحَابَةُ; ''aṣ-ṣaḥāba'' meaning "the companions", from the verb meaning "accompany", "keep company with", "associate with") were the disciples and followers of Muhammad who saw or m ...

as executioners,

Ali ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib ( ar, عَلِيّ بْن أَبِي طَالِب; 600 – 661 CE) was the last of four Rightly Guided Caliphs to rule Islam (r. 656 – 661) immediately after the death of Muhammad, and he was the first Shia Imam ...

and

Zubayr ibn al-Awwam Az Zubayr ( ar, الزبير) is a city in and the capital of Al-Zubair District, part of the Basra Governorate of Iraq. The city is just south of Basra. The name can also refer to the old Emirate of Zubair. The name is also sometimes written Al ...

in particular, and that each clan of the Aws was also charged with killing a group of Qurayza men. Subhash Inamdar argues that this was done in order to avoid the risk of further conflicts between Muhammad and the Aws. According to Inamdar, Muhammad wanted to distance himself from the events and, had he been involved, he would have risked alienating some of the Aws. It is also reported that one woman, who had thrown a millstone from the battlements during the siege and killed one of the Muslim besiegers, was also beheaded along with the men.Muir (p. 277) follows Hishami and also refers to Aisha, who had related: "But I shall never cease to marvel at her good humour and laughter, although she knew that she was to die."
Ibn Ishaq, ''Biography of Muhammad''
. Ibn Asakir writes in his ''

History of Damascus )), is an adjective which means "spacious". , motto = , image_flag = Flag of Damascus.svg , image_seal = Emblem of Damascus.svg , seal_type = Seal , map_caption = , ...

'' that the Banu Kilab, a clan of Arab clients of the Banu Qurayza, were killed alongside the Jewish tribe.Lecker, "On Arabs of the Banū Kilāb executed together with the Jewish Banū Qurayza", p. 69. Three boys of the clan of Hadl, who had been with Qurayza in the strongholds, slipped out before the surrender and converted to Islam. The son of one of them, Muhammad ibn Ka'b al-Qurazi, gained distinction as a scholar. One or two other men also escaped. The spoils of battle, including the enslaved women and children of the tribe, were divided up among the Islamic warriors that had participated in the siege and among the emigrees from Mecca (who had hitherto depended on the help of the Muslims native to Medina.Kister, "The Massacre of the Banu Quraiza", p. 95f.Rodinson, ''Muhammad: Prophet of Islam'', p. 213. Mohammad collected one-fifth of the booty, which was then redistributed to the Muslims in need, as was customary. As part of his share of the spoils, Muhammad selected one of the women, Rayhana, for himself and took her as part of his booty. Muhammad offered to free and marry her and according to some sources she accepted his proposal. She is said to have later become a Muslim. Some of the women and children of the Banu Qurayza who were enslaved by the Muslims were later bought by Jews, in particular the Banu Nadir. Peterson argues that this is because the Nadir felt responsible for the Qurayza's fate due to the role of their chieftain in the events.

Analysis

According to Islamic traditions, the Qur'an briefly refers to the incident in Surah . Muslim jurists have looked upon Surah as a justification of the treatment of the Banu Qurayza, arguing that the Qurayza broke their pact with Muhammad, and thus Muhammad was justified in repudiating his side of the pact and killing the Qurayza en masse. Arab Muslim theologians and historians have either viewed the incident as "the punishment of the Medina Jews, who were invited to convert and refused, perfectly exemplify the Quran's tales of what happened to those who rejected the prophets of old" or offered a political, rather than religious, explanation. In the 8th and early 9th century many Muslim jurists, such as Ash-Shafii, based their judgments and decrees supporting collective punishment for treachery on the accounts of the demise of the Qurayza, with which they were well acquainted.Kister, ''The Massacre of the Banū Quraiza'', p. 66. However, the proceedings of Muhammad with regard to the

and the Banu Qurayza were not taken as a model for the relationship of Muslim states toward its Jewish subjects. In his 1861 biography of Muhammad

Sir William Muir Sir William Muir (27 April 1819 – 11 July 1905) was a Scottish Orientalist, and colonial administrator, Principal of the University of Edinburgh and Lieutenant Governor of the North-West Provinces of British India. Life He was born at Gl ...

argued that the massacre cannot be justified by political necessity and "casts an odious blot upon the prophet's name".

Leone Caetani Leone Caetani (September 12, 1869 – December 25, 1935), Caetani, Duke of Sermoneta (also known as Prince Caetani), was an Italian scholar, politician, and historian of the Middle East. Caetani is considered a innovator, pioneer in the applicati ...

argued that the judgement was in fact dictated by Muhammad, making him responsible for the massacre.

Francesco Gabrieli Francesco Gabrieli (27 April 1904, in Rome – 13 December 1996, in Rome) was counted among the most distinguished Italian Arabists together with Giorgio Levi Della Vida and Alessandro Bausani, of whom he was respectively a student and collea ...

commented that "we can only record the fact... that this God or at least this aspect of Him, is not ours". ParetParet, ''Mohammed und der Koran'', p. 122-124. and WattWatt, ''Muhammad at Medina'', p. 217-218. say that the Banu Qurayza were killed not because of their faith but for "treasonable activities against the Medinan community". Watt relates that "no important clan of Jews was left in Medina" but he and Paret also note that Muhammad did not clear all Jews out of Medina. Aiming at placing the events in their historical context, Watt points to the "harsh political circumstances of that era" and argues that the treatment of Qurayza was regular Arab practice ("but on a larger scale than usual"). Similar statements are made by Stillman, Paret, Lewis and Rodinson. On the other hand, Michael Lecker and Irving Zeitlin consider the events "unprecedented in the Arab peninsula - a novelty" and state that "prior to Islam, the annihilation of an adversary was never an aim of war." Similar statements are made by Hirschberg and Baron. Some authors assert that the judgement of

was conducted according to laws of

Torah The Torah (; hbo, ''Tōrā'', "Instruction", "Teaching" or "Law") is the compilation of the first five books of the Hebrew Bible, namely the books of Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers and Deuteronomy. In that sense, Torah means the s ...

Muhammad Hamidullah Muhammad Hamidullah ( ur, محمد حمیداللہ, translit=Muḥammad Ḥamīdullāh; 19 February 1908 – 17 December 2002) was a scholar of hadiths (''muhaddith)'' and Islamic law ( faqih) and a prolific academic author. A polymath with com ...

goes further and says that Sa'd "applied to them their own Biblical law ..and their own practice." No contemporaneous source says explicitly that Sa'd based his judgment on the Torah. Moreover, the respective verses of the Torah make no mention of treason or breach of faith, and the

Jewish law ''Halakha'' (; he, הֲלָכָה, ), also Romanization of Hebrew, transliterated as ''halacha'', ''halakhah'', and ''halocho'' ( ), is the collective body of Judaism, Jewish religious laws which is derived from the Torah, written and Oral Tora ...

as it existed at the time and as it is still understood today applies these Torah verses only to the situation of the conquest of

Canaan Canaan (; Phoenician: 𐤊𐤍𐤏𐤍 – ; he, כְּנַעַן – , in pausa – ; grc-bib, Χανααν – ;The current scholarly edition of the Greek Old Testament spells the word without any accents, cf. Septuaginta : id est Vetus T ...

under

Joshua Joshua () or Yehoshua ( ''Yəhōšuaʿ'', Tiberian: ''Yŏhōšuaʿ,'' lit. 'Yahweh is salvation') ''Yēšūaʿ''; syr, ܝܫܘܥ ܒܪ ܢܘܢ ''Yəšūʿ bar Nōn''; el, Ἰησοῦς, ar , يُوشَعُ ٱبْنُ نُونٍ '' Yūšaʿ ...

, and not to any other period of history.

Doubts about the historicity of the event

Walid N. Arafat and

Barakat Ahmad Barakat Ahmad (died 1988) was a scholar and Indian diplomat. He had a doctorate in Arab history from the American University of Beirut and a doctorate in literature from the University of Tehran.Leon Nemoy, ''Barakat Ahmad's "Muhammad and the Jews" ...

have disputed that the Banu Qurayza were killed on quite such a large scale.Meri, ''Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopedia'', p. 754. Arafat disputes large-scale killings and argued that

gathered information from descendants of the Qurayza Jews, who embellished or manufactured the details of the incident. Arafat relates the testimony of Ibn Hajar, who denounced this and other accounts as "odd tales" and quoted

Malik ibn Anas Malik ibn Anas ( ar, مَالِك بن أَنَس, ‎ 711–795 CE / 93–179 AH), whose full name is Mālik bin Anas bin Mālik bin Abī ʿĀmir bin ʿAmr bin Al-Ḥārith bin Ghaymān bin Khuthayn bin ʿAmr bin Al-Ḥārith al-Aṣbaḥī ...

, a contemporary of Ibn Ishaq, whom he rejected as a "liar", an "impostor" and for seeking out the Jewish descendants for gathering information about Muhammad's campaign with their forefathers.Arafat, "New Light on the Story of Banu Qurayza and the Jews of Medina", p. 100-107. Arafat relates the testimony of Ibn Hajar, who denounced this and other accounts as "odd tales" and quoted

, a contemporary of Ibn Ishaq, whom he rejected as a "liar", an "impostor" and for seeking out the Jewish descendants for gathering information about Muhammad's campaign with their forefathers. Ahmad argues that only some of the tribe were killed, while some of the fighters were merely enslaved.Nemoy, "Barakat Ahmad's 'Muhammad and the Jews'", p. 325. Nemoy is sourcing Ahmad's ''Muhammad and the Jews''.Watt finds Arafat's arguments "not entirely convincing", while Meir J. Kister has contradicted the arguments of Arafat and Ahmad.

Other Jewish tribes

Most Jewish tribes that remained loyal towards the prophet always held a friendly status and were called allies of the Muslims. Taking the tribe of

Banu al-Harith The Banu al-Harith ( ar, بَنُو الْحَارِث ' or ar, بَنُو الْحُرَيْث ') is an Arabian tribe which once governed the cities of Najran, Taif, and Bisha, now located in southern Saudi Arabia. History Origins and early ...

as an example that were concluded in the 31 Points of the

and honored as allies to the Muslims being as "one nation", but retaining their Jewish religion. They were given the same rights as

Banu Awf The Banu Awf ( ar, بنو عوف, ) was one of the Jewish tribes of Arabia during Muhammad's era. The Banu Awf was an Arab tribe who wished to settle in the Jewish-ruled Tayma. The local people in Tayma insisted as a condition of settling in Tayma ...

and entered into mutual protection pacts with the Muslim tribes.Charles Kurzman, ''Liberal Islam'', p. 172 In the

, Jews were given equality to Muslims in exchange for political loyaltyEsposito, John. (1998), Islam: the Straight Path, extended edition. Oxford university press, p.17.Jacob Neusner, God's Rule: The Politics of World Religions, p. 153, Georgetown University Press, 2003, and were allowed to practice their own culture and religion. A significant narrative symbolising the inter-faith harmony between early Muslims and Jews is that of the Rabbi Mukhayriq. The Rabbi was from

and fought alongside Muslims at the Battle of Uhud and bequeathed his entire wealth to Muhammad in the case of his death. He was subsequently called "the best of the Jews" by Muhammad.

References in literature

The fate of the Banu Qurayza became the subject of Shaul Tchernichovsky's

Hebrew Hebrew (; ; ) is a Northwest Semitic language of the Afroasiatic language family. Historically, it is one of the spoken languages of the Israelites and their longest-surviving descendants, the Jews and Samaritans. It was largely preserved ...

poem ''Ha-aharon li-Venei Kuraita'' (''The Last of the Banu Qurayza'').

Notes

Literature

General references

*''

''. Ed. P. Bearman et al., Leiden: Brill, 1960–2005. *''

'' (CD-ROM Edition Version 1.0). Ed.

Cecil Roth Cecil Roth (5 March 1899 – 21 June 1970) was a British Jewish historian. He was editor in chief of ''Encyclopaedia Judaica''. Life Roth was born in Dalston, London, on 5 March 1899. His parents were Etty and Joseph Roth, and Cecil was the young ...

. Keter Publishing House, 1997. *''Shorter Encyclopaedia of Islam''. Ed. Hamilton A. R. Gibb, Johannes Hendrik Kramers. Leiden:Brill, 1953. *''Handwörterbuch des Islam''. Ed. A. J. Wensinck, J. H. Kramers. Leiden: Brill, 1941.

Books and articles

* * * * * * * * * * * * *

Jewish tribes

*Arafat, Walid N.,
New Light on the Story of Banu Qurayza and the Jews of Medina
, in: '' JRAS'' 1976, p. 100-107. * Ahmad, Barakat, ''Muhammad and the Jews, a Re-examination'', New Delhi. Vikas Publishing House for Indian Institute of Islamic studies. 1979 *Baron, Salo Wittmeyer. ''A Social and Religious History of the Jews. Volume III: Heirs of Rome and Persia''. Columbia University Press, 1957. *Firestone, Reuven,
The failure of a Jewish program of public satire in the squares of Medina
, in: ''Judaism'' (Fall 1997). *Hirschberg, Hayyim Ze'ev, ''Yisrael Ba'Arav''. Tel Aviv: Mossad Bialik, 1946. * Kister, Meir J., "The Massacre of the Banu Quraiza. A re-examination of a tradition", in: ''

Jerusalem Studies in Arabic and Islam ''Jerusalem Studies in Arabic and Islam'' is a peer-reviewed academic journal covering the study of classical Islam, Islamic religious thought, Arabic language and literature, the origins of Islamic institutions, and the interaction between Islam ...

'' 8 (1986). *Lecker, Michael, "On Arabs of the Banū Kilāb executed together with the Jewish Banū Qurayza", in: ''Jerusalem Studies in Arabic and Islam'' 19 (1995), p. 69. *Newby, Gordon Darnell, ''A History of the Jews of Arabia: From Ancient Times to Their Eclipse Under Islam'' (Studies in Comparative Religion). University of South Carolina Press, 1988. *Lewis, Bernard, ''The Jews of Islam''. Princeton University Press, 2004. *Lewis, Bernard, ''The Political Language of Islam'', University of Chicago Press, 1991. *Nemoy, Leon, "Barakat Ahmad's 'Muhammad and the Jews'", in: ''The Jewish Quarterly Review, New Series'', vol. 72, No. 4. (April 1982), p. 325. *Rubin, Uri, "The Assassination of Kaʿb b. al-Ashraf", ''Oriens'' 32 (1990), p. 65-71. *Serjeant, R. B., "The "Sunnah Jami'ah, Pacts with the Yathrib Jews, and the "Tahrim" of Yathrib: Analysis and Translation of the Documents Comprised in the So-Called Constitution of Medina", in: ''Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London'' 41 (1978), p. 1-42. * Stillman, Norman, ''The Jews of Arab Lands: A History and Source Book''. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society of America (1979).

Background: Muhammad, Islam and Arabia

*Abu-Nimer, Mohammed, "A Framework for Nonviolence and Peacebuilding in Islam", in: ''Journal of Law and Religion'' Volume 15, No. 1/2 (2000-2001), p. 217-265. *Adil, Hajjah Amina, ''Muhammad: The Messenger of Islam''. Islamic Supreme Council of America, 2002. *Ananikian, M. H., "Tahrif or the alteration of the bible according to the Moslems", in: ''The Muslim World'' Volume 14, Issue 1 (January 1924), p. 63-64. * Ayoub, Mahmoud, "Dhimmah in Qur'an and Hadith", in: ''Arab Studies Quarterly'' 5 (1983), p. 179. *Brown, Daniel W., ''A New Introduction to Islam''. Blackwell Publishing, 2003. *Firestone, Reuven, ''Jihad: The Origin of Holy War in Islam''. Oxford University Press, 1999. *Guillaume, Alfred, ''The Life of Muhammad: A Translation of Ibn Ishaq's Sirat Rasul Allah''. Oxford University Press, 1955. *Hashmi, Sohail H., Buchanan, Allen E. & Moore, Margaret, ''States, Nations, and Borders: The Ethics of Making Boundaries''. Cambridge University Press, 2003. *Hawting, Gerald R. & Shareef, Abdul-Kader A., ''Approaches to the Qur'an''. Routledge, 1993. *Heck, Gene W., "Arabia Without Spices: An Alternate Hypothesis", in: ''Journal of the American Oriental Society'' 123 (2003), p. 547-567. *Hodgson, Marshall G.S., ''The Venture of Islam''. University of Chicago Press, 1974. *Inamdar, Subhash, ''Muhammad and the Rise of Islam: The Creation of Group Identity''. Psychosocial Press, 2001. *Khadduri, Majid, ''War and Peace in the Law of Islam''. Johns Hopkins Press, 1955. *Lings, ''Muhammad: His Life Based on the Earliest Sources'', p. 229-233. *Meri, Josef W., ''Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopedia''. Routledge, 2005. . * Nomani, Shibli, ''Sirat al-Nabi''. Karachi: Pakistan Historical Society, 1970. *Norcliffe, David, ''Islam: Faith and Practice''. Sussex Academic Press, 1999. *Paret, Rudi, ''Mohammed und der Koran. Geschichte und Verkündigung des arabischen Propheten''. *Peters, Francis E., ''Muhammad and the Origins of Islam''. State University of New York Press, 1994. . *Peters, Francis E., ''Islam. A Guide for Jews and Christians''. Princeton University Press, 2003. *Peterson, Daniel C., ''Muhammad: the prophet of God''. Grand Rapids, Michigan: William B. Eerdmans, 2007. * Ramadan, Tariq, ''In the Footsteps of the Prophet''. New York: Oxford University Press, 2007. * Rodinson, Maxime, ''Muhammad: Prophet of Islam'', Tauris Parke Paperbacks, 2002. * Watt, William Montgomery, "Muhammad", in: ''The Cambridge History of Islam'', vol. 1. Cambridge University Press, 1970. *Watt, William Montgomery, ''Muhammad: Prophet and Statesman''. Oxford University Press, 1961. *Watt, William Montgomery, ''Muhammad at Medina'', 1956. *Zeitlin, Irving, ''The Historical Muhammad''. Polity Press 2007.

External links

PBS site on the Jews of Medina
{{Jews and Judaism Arabian tribes that interacted with Muhammad Tribes of Saudi Arabia 7th century in Asia Ancient peoples of the Near East