Xiangsheng
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Xiangsheng (), also known as crosstalk or comic dialogue, is a traditional
performing art The performing arts are arts such as music, dance, and drama which are performed for an audience. They are different from the visual arts, which are the use of paint, canvas or various materials to create physical or static art objects. Perfor ...
in
Chinese comedy Chinese comedy has a long history that dates back to the Zhou Dynasty (1100 BC to 221 BC) when the aristocracy kept jesters in their homes. At that time people in higher society were profoundly influenced by the teachings of Confucius, a ...
, and one of the most popular elements in
Chinese culture Chinese culture () is one of the world's oldest cultures, originating thousands of years ago. The culture prevails across a large geographical region in East Asia and is extremely diverse and varying, with customs and traditions varying grea ...
. It is typically performed as a
dialogue Dialogue (sometimes spelled dialog in American English) is a written or spoken conversational exchange between two or more people, and a literary and theatrical form that depicts such an exchange. As a philosophical or didactic device, it is c ...
between two performers, or rarely as a
monologue In theatre, a monologue (from el, μονόλογος, from μόνος ''mónos'', "alone, solitary" and λόγος ''lógos'', "speech") is a speech presented by a single character, most often to express their thoughts aloud, though sometimes a ...
by a solo performer (similar to most forms of
stand-up comedy Stand-up comedy is a comedy, comedic performance to a live audience in which the performer addresses the audience directly from the stage. The performer is known as a comedian, a comic or a stand-up. Stand-up comedy consists of One-line joke ...
in
Western culture Leonardo da Vinci's ''Vitruvian Man''. Based on the correlations of ideal Body proportions">human proportions with geometry described by the ancient Roman architect Vitruvius in Book III of his treatise ''De architectura''. image:Plato Pio-Cle ...
), or even less frequently, as a group act by multiple performers. The Xiangsheng language, rich in
pun A pun, also known as paronomasia, is a form of word play that exploits multiple meanings of a term, or of similar-sounding words, for an intended humorous or rhetorical effect. These ambiguities can arise from the intentional use of homophoni ...
s and
allusion Allusion is a figure of speech, in which an object or circumstance from unrelated context is referred to covertly or indirectly. It is left to the audience to make the direct connection. Where the connection is directly and explicitly stated (as ...
s, is delivered in a rapid, bantering style, typically in the
Beijing dialect The Beijing dialect (), also known as Pekingese and Beijingese, is the prestige dialect of Mandarin spoken in the urban area of Beijing, China. It is the phonological basis of Standard Chinese, the official language in the People's Republic of ...
(or in
Mandarin Chinese Mandarin (; ) is a group of Chinese (Sinitic) dialects that are natively spoken across most of northern and southwestern China. The group includes the Beijing dialect, the basis of the phonology of Standard Chinese, the official language of ...
with a strong
northern Northern may refer to the following: Geography * North, a point in direction * Northern Europe, the northern part or region of Europe * Northern Highland, a region of Wisconsin, United States * Northern Province, Sri Lanka * Northern Range, a ra ...
accent). The acts would sometimes include singing, Chinese rapping, and musical instruments. Xiangsheng has unmistakable connections with the vaudeville
Double act A double act (also known as a comedy duo) is a form of comedy originating in the British music hall tradition, and American vaudeville, in which two comedians perform together as a single act. Pairings are typically long-term, in some cases f ...
that developed in approximately the same era. Some Westerners have studied the art of Xiangsheng. One
Canadian Canadians (french: Canadiens) are people identified with the country of Canada. This connection may be residential, legal, historical or cultural. For most Canadians, many (or all) of these connections exist and are collectively the source of ...
student of Xiangsheng, Mark Rowswell, who uses the stage name of
Dashan Mark Henry Rowswell, CM (born May 23, 1965), better known by his Chinese stage name Dashan (), is a Canadian comedian and television personality popular in China. Relatively unknown in the West, from the late 1980s through the early 2000s Dash ...
, has said that the closest English equivalent is "
Who's on First? "Who's on First?" is a comedy routine made famous by American comedy duo Abbott and Costello. The premise of the sketch is that Abbott is identifying the players on a baseball team for Costello. However, the players' names can simultaneously ...
", a sketch by
Abbott and Costello Abbott may refer to: People *Abbott (surname) *Abbott Handerson Thayer (1849–1921), American painter and naturalist * Abbott and Costello, famous American vaudeville act Places Argentina * Abbott, Buenos Aires United States * Abbott, Arkansas ...
. However, many acts in vaudeville and radio double acts, as well as the screen comedy dialogue that evolved from them, are similar to Xiangsheng in their formulae.


Format

Modern Xiangsheng comprises four classic skills: * ''Speaking'' (simplified Chinese: 说; traditional Chinese: 說; pinyin: ''shuō''): to tell a story, which is the pragmatic mechanism of the humor (i.e. making jokes or using
tongue-twisters A tongue twister is a phrase that is designed to be difficult to articulate properly, and can be used as a type of spoken (or sung) word game. Additionally, they can be used as exercises to improve pronunciation and fluency. Some tongue twisters p ...
). * ''Imitating'' (simplified Chinese: 学; traditional Chinese: 學; pinyin: ''xué''): includes
Kouji ''Kouji'' ({{zh, c=口技), which can be translated literally as "mouth skill" or "skill of mouth" is a Chinese vocal mimicry performance art which utilizes the human speech organs to mimic the sounds of everyday life. When this vocal mimicry i ...
, accents,
dialect The term dialect (from Latin , , from the Ancient Greek word , 'discourse', from , 'through' and , 'I speak') can refer to either of two distinctly different types of Linguistics, linguistic phenomena: One usage refers to a variety (linguisti ...
s, and other sounds, as well as imitating the "singing" and actions of specific characters in traditional Chinese operas such as
Peking opera Peking opera, or Beijing opera (), is the most dominant form of Chinese opera, which combines music, vocal performance, mime, dance and acrobatics. It arose in Beijing in the mid-Qing dynasty (1644–1912) and became fully developed and recognize ...
, Pingxi, and Bangzi. * ''Teasing'' (Chinese: 逗; pinyin: ''dòu''): to make a joke—tease is the soul of Xiangsheng. * ''Singing'' (Chinese: 唱; pinyin: ''chàng''): only
Taiping lyrics __NOTOC__ Taiping, Tai-p’ing, or Tai Ping most often refers to: Chinese history * Princess Taiping (died 713), Tang dynasty princess * Taiping Rebellion (1850–1864), civil war in southern China ** Taiping Heavenly Kingdom (1851–1864), the re ...
can be considered as singing in Xiangsheng. Xiangsheng is most commonly performed by two actors. The leading actor is called Dougen (simplified Chinese: 逗哏; traditional Chinese: 逗哏; pinyin: dòugén) and the supporting actor is called Penggen (simplified Chinese: 捧哏; traditional Chinese: 捧哏; pinyin: pěnggén).


History


Origins

Xiangsheng is generally thought to have originated in the late
Qing Dynasty The Qing dynasty ( ), officially the Great Qing,, was a Manchu-led imperial dynasty of China and the last orthodox dynasty in Chinese history. It emerged from the Later Jin dynasty founded by the Jianzhou Jurchens, a Tungusic-speak ...
, particularly during the rules of the
Xianfeng Emperor The Xianfeng Emperor (17 July 1831 – 22 August 1861), or by temple name Emperor Wenzong of Qing (), given name Yizhu (), was the eighth Emperor of the Qing dynasty, and the seventh Qing emperor to rule over China proper, reigned from 1850 t ...
and the
Tongzhi Emperor The Tongzhi Emperor (27 April 1856 – 12 January 1875), born Zaichun of the Aisin Gioro clan, was the ninth List of emperors of the Qing dynasty, Emperor of the Qing dynasty, and the eighth Qing emperor to rule over China proper. His reign, from 1 ...
in the mid-1800s, although its roots may extend as far back as the
Ming Dynasty The Ming dynasty (), officially the Great Ming, was an Dynasties in Chinese history, imperial dynasty of China, ruling from 1368 to 1644 following the collapse of the Mongol Empire, Mongol-led Yuan dynasty. The Ming dynasty was the last ort ...
. It began as a form of
street performance Street performance or busking is the act of performing in public places for gratuities. In many countries, the rewards are generally in the form of money but other gratuities such as food, drink or gifts may be given. Street performance is pr ...
, incorporating joke-telling, comedic banter, imitations, or borrowing from other performance arts, such as
Peking opera Peking opera, or Beijing opera (), is the most dominant form of Chinese opera, which combines music, vocal performance, mime, dance and acrobatics. It arose in Beijing in the mid-Qing dynasty (1644–1912) and became fully developed and recognize ...
, all with the express purpose of making audiences laugh. By the early days of the
Republic of China Taiwan, officially the Republic of China (ROC), is a country in East Asia, at the junction of the East and South China Seas in the northwestern Pacific Ocean, with the People's Republic of China (PRC) to the northwest, Japan to the northeast ...
, Xiangsheng had evolved into a more modern format. It was performed in
teahouses A teahouse (mainly Asia) or tearoom (also tea room) is an establishment which primarily serves tea and other light refreshments. A tea room may be a room set aside in a hotel especially for serving afternoon tea, or may be an establishment whic ...
, theaters, and, eventually, on radio and television. There are three major sources of Xiangsheng:
Beijing } Beijing ( ; ; ), alternatively romanized as Peking ( ), is the capital of the People's Republic of China. It is the center of power and development of the country. Beijing is the world's most populous national capital city, with over 21 ...
Tianqiao,
Tianjin Tianjin (; ; Mandarin: ), alternately romanized as Tientsin (), is a municipality and a coastal metropolis in Northern China on the shore of the Bohai Sea. It is one of the nine national central cities in Mainland China, with a total popul ...
Quanyechang, and the
Nanjing Nanjing (; , Mandarin pronunciation: ), alternately romanized as Nanking, is the capital of Jiangsu province of the People's Republic of China. It is a sub-provincial city, a megacity, and the second largest city in the East China region. T ...
Confucius Temple. The origins of certain modern-day Xiangsheng pieces can be traced back well over 100 years, though in many cases, the original author is unattributed. Many skits in "traditional Xiangsheng" have evolved through generations of performers successively revising material, retaining the general structure or "heart" of a piece while updating specific references with more modern material. One of the earliest Xiangsheng pioneers is a person known by name of
Zhang Sanlu Zhang may refer to: Chinese culture, etc. * Zhang (surname) (張/张), common Chinese surname ** Zhang (surname 章), a rarer Chinese surname * Zhang County (漳县), of Dingxi, Gansu * Zhang River (漳河), a river flowing mainly in Henan * ''Z ...
(), who performed during the mid-19th century. Originally a performer of Ba Jiao Gu (''drum-song'') (), Zhang eventually switched to doing imitations and telling humorous stories. Later artists considered Zhang to have been one of the first Xiangsheng performers.


Xiangsheng in Chinese Mainland

After the establishment of the
People's Republic of China China, officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), is a country in East Asia. It is the world's most populous country, with a population exceeding 1.4 billion, slightly ahead of India. China spans the equivalent of five time zones and ...
in 1949, the popularity of Xiangsheng increased. Previously seen as relatively low-class street performing, Xiangsheng became regarded as a
proletarian The proletariat (; ) is the social class of wage-earners, those members of a society whose only possession of significant economic value is their labour power (their capacity to work). A member of such a class is a proletarian. Marxist philoso ...
art form. Because it was performed in
Mandarin Chinese Mandarin (; ) is a group of Chinese (Sinitic) dialects that are natively spoken across most of northern and southwestern China. The group includes the Beijing dialect, the basis of the phonology of Standard Chinese, the official language of ...
, Xiangsheng became a useful tool for promoting the use of Mandarin Chinese throughout China. In the 1950s,
Hou Baolin Hou Baolin (; November 29, 1917 – February 4, 1993) was a Chinese xiangsheng performer. He was one of his generation's most popular and influential xiangsheng performers and was mentor to many later xiangsheng performers. His apprentices includ ...
led a group of Xiangsheng performers to reform Xiangsheng, removing language and content that was considered "vulgar" and generally making it more "politically correct". Hou later became widely regarded as a master of Xiangsheng. He is often regarded as "China's
Charlie Chaplin Sir Charles Spencer Chaplin Jr. (16 April 188925 December 1977) was an English comic actor, filmmaker, and composer who rose to fame in the era of silent film. He became a worldwide icon through his screen persona, the Tramp, and is consider ...
". As with many forms of performance art, Xiangsheng was banned during the
Cultural Revolution The Cultural Revolution, formally known as the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution, was a sociopolitical movement in the People's Republic of China (PRC) launched by Mao Zedong in 1966, and lasting until his death in 1976. Its stated goal ...
. It experienced a huge resurgence in the mid-1970s, with many skits satirizing the
Gang of Four The Gang of Four () was a Maoist political faction composed of four Chinese Communist Party (CCP) officials. They came to prominence during the Cultural Revolution (1966–1976) and were later charged with a series of treasonous crimes. The gang ...
and excesses of this period. With the popularization of
television Television, sometimes shortened to TV, is a telecommunication medium for transmitting moving images and sound. The term can refer to a television set, or the medium of television transmission. Television is a mass medium for advertisin ...
in the 1980s, Xiangsheng became a standard feature of the annual New Year's Gala of
China Central Television China Central Television (CCTV) is a Chinese state- and political party-owned broadcaster controlled by the Chinese Communist Party (CCP). Its 50 different channels broadcast a variety of programing to more than one billion viewers in six lan ...
(CCTV), as well as other popular performing arts shows in China. Xiangsheng entered a period of decline in the 1990s, caused largely by increased official sensitivity towards political and social satire following the
1989 Tiananmen Square protests The Tiananmen Square protests, known in Chinese as the June Fourth Incident (), were student-led demonstrations held in Tiananmen Square, Beijing during 1989. In what is known as the Tiananmen Square Massacre, or in Chinese the June Fourth ...
, as well as the lack of performance venues outside of sanitized state-run television programming. Many performers called for a return of performing Xiangsheng in
teahouses A teahouse (mainly Asia) or tearoom (also tea room) is an establishment which primarily serves tea and other light refreshments. A tea room may be a room set aside in a hotel especially for serving afternoon tea, or may be an establishment whic ...
and small theaters, which had traditionally been the main venues for Xiangsheng performances but were almost never used at the time. A new generation of Xiangsheng performers emerged from this movement, including
Guo Degang Guo Degang () is a Chinese crosstalk (''xiangsheng'') comedian and actor. Guo's film appearances include ''The 601st Phone Call'', ''Just Another Pandora's Box'', and ''Mystery''. Guo has also directed the films ''Our Happiness'' and ''The Face ...
. Guo has been credited with renewing interest among young
millennial Millennials, also known as Generation Y or Gen Y, are the Western demographic cohort following Generation X and preceding Generation Z. Researchers and popular media use the early 1980s as starting birth years and the mid-1990s to early 2000 ...
audiences, who found Xiangsheng to be boring and didactic. Guo's rise to fame, while representing a very traditionalist movement, pitted him against more mainstream, establishment performers, such as Jiang Kun. In recent years, to appeal to younger audiences, animators have created
animated Animation is a method by which still figures are manipulated to appear as moving images. In traditional animation, images are drawn or painted by hand on transparent celluloid sheets to be photographed and exhibited on film. Today, most anim ...
versions of various skits using audio from past broadcasts. The animated versions often use humor in a literal sense, illustrating scenes or stories described by the performers. There are some variety shows for young Xiangsheng actors to promote themselves like "Xiangsheng Has New Talents" (Chinese: 相声有新人) and "Happy Comedian" (Chinese: 欢乐喜剧人), both hosted by Guo Degang.


Xiangsheng in Taiwan

In 1949, a group of Xiangsheng performers followed the Republic of China's retreat to
Taiwan Taiwan, officially the Republic of China (ROC), is a country in East Asia, at the junction of the East and South China Seas in the northwestern Pacific Ocean, with the People's Republic of China (PRC) to the northwest, Japan to the nort ...
. The same year,
Chen Yian Chen may refer to: People * Chen (surname) (陳 / 陈), a common Chinese surname * Chen (singer) (born 1992), member of the South Korean-Chinese boy band EXO * Chen Chen (born 1989), Chinese-American poet * (), a Hebrew first name or surname: ...
(Chinese: 陳逸安), Wei Longhao (Chinese: 魏龍豪), and Wu Zhaonan met and hosted a Xiangsheng show on the
Broadcasting Corporation of China The Broadcasting Corporation of China (BCC) is a broadcasting company in the Republic of China (also known as Taiwan). It was founded as the Central Broadcasting System in Nanjing in 1928. History The Central Broadcasting System is considere ...
and Taiwan Police Radio (Chinese: 警察廣播電台). After 1967, he began collecting data to produce "Xiangsheng Collections", "Xiangsheng Highlight", "Xiangsheng Anecdote", and "Rediscovery of Xiangsheng". Initially, Xiangsheng's main audience was internal immigrants, mainly from
military dependents' village A military dependents' village () is a community in Taiwan built in the late 1940s and the 1950s whose original purpose was to serve as provisional housing for soldiers, sailors, airmen and marines of the Republic of China Armed Forces, along ...
s. In 1985, performance workshop Biao Fang (Chinese: 表演工作坊) launched ''That Night, We Speak Xiangsheng'' (Chinese: 那一夜,我們說相聲), a play performed by Li Liqun (Chinese: 李立群) and Li Guoxiu (Chinese: 李國修), which caused a stir. In 1989, Biao Fang launched the stage play ''Tonight, Who Speaks Xiangsheng?'' (Chinese: 這一夜,誰來說相聲), which was performed by Li Liqun (Chinese: 李立群), Jin Shijie (Chinese: 金士傑), and
Chen Lihua Chen Lihua (; born 1941), rendered Chan Laiwa in Cantonese, is the founder and chairman of Fuwah International Group, one of Beijing's largest commercial property developers. In 2014, Forbes ranked her as the 10th richest mainland Chinese, the r ...
(Chinese: 陳立華). Numerous other plays were produced, including: * ''Taiwan Bizarre Talk'' (1991; performed by Li Liqun), * ''That Night, We Speak Xiangsheng'' (Chinese: 那一夜,我們說相聲; 1993; performed by Li Liqun and Feng Yugang (Chinese: 馮翊綱)), * ''Another Night, They Speak Xiangsheng'' (1997; performed by Feng Yugang, Zhao Ziqiang (Chinese: 赵自强), and Bu Xueliang (Chinese: 卜學亮), and * ''Millennium Night, We Speak Xiangsheng'' (2000; performed by Zhao Ziqiang, Jin Shijie, and Ni Minjan). In 2005, ''This Night, Women Speak Xiangsheng''—performed by
Fang Fang Fang Fang (), pen name of Wang Fang (; born 11 May 1955), is a Chinese writer, known for her literary depictions of the working poor. She won the Lu Xun Literary Prize in 2010. Born in Nanjing, she attended Wuhan University in 1978 to study Chin ...
(Chinese: 方芳),
Deng Chenghui Deng may refer to: * Deng (company), is a Danish engineering, electrical, solar power and sales company in Accra, Ghana * Deng (state), an ancient Chinese state * Deng (Chinese surname), originated from the state ** Deng Xiaoping, paramount lea ...
(Chinese: 鄧程慧), and Xiao Ai (Chinese: 蕭艾)—was launched. Although all these plays were claimed to be Xiangsheng, they were actually
theater Theatre or theater is a collaborative form of performing art that uses live performers, usually actor, actors or actresses, to present the experience of a real or imagined event before a live audience in a specific place, often a stage. The p ...
performances. In April 1988, Feng Yugang and Song Shaoqing (Chinese: 宋少卿) formed Comedians Workshop, which aimed to merge theater with Xiangsheng. Huang Shiwei (Chinese: 黄士伟) joined in 2001. On July 8, 2004, Comedians Workshop assisted Dream Theater to perform ''Give Me a Tape.'' In 1993,
Liu Zengqi / ( or ) is an East Asia, East Asian surname. pinyin: in Mandarin Chinese, in Cantonese. It is the family name of the Han dynasty emperors. The character originally meant 'kill', but is now used only as a surname. It is listed 252nd in the c ...
(Chinese: 劉增鍇) and
Lin Wenbin Lin or LIN may refer to: People *Lin (surname) (normally ), a Chinese surname *Lin (surname) (normally 蔺), a Chinese surname *Lin (The King of Fighters), Lin (''The King of Fighters''), Chinese assassin character *Lin Chow Bang, character in Fat ...
(Chinese: 林文彬) founded the Taipei Musical Art Troupe. In addition to Xiangsheng, they also introduced many Chinese traditional
Quyi ''Quyi'' ("melodious art") and ''shuochang yishu'' ("speaking and singing art") are umbrella terms for over 300 regional genres of traditional Chinese oral performing arts. ''Quyi'' is distinguished from ''xiqu'' (Chinese opera) by its emphasis o ...
(a traditional form of Chinese art), such as Shuanghuang (Chinese: 双簧),
Pingshu ''Pingshu'' () or ''pinghua'' () refers to the traditional Han Chinese performing art of storytelling with no musical accompaniment. It is better known as ''pingshu'' in northern China and ''pinghua'' in southern China. Performing art Pingsh ...
(Chinese: 评书),
Shulaibao Shulaibao ( zh, c=wikt:数来宝, 数来宝, p=shǔláibǎo), also known as doggerel, jingle or clever tongue, is a Chinese folk art form consisting of spoken word poetry. It is usually performed by one person or a pair of performers. The actors ac ...
(Chinese: 数来宝),
Kuaiban ''Kuaibanshu'' () is a form of oral storytelling performance that is popular in northern China. It is a type of ''shuochang'', somewhat similar to Vietnamese vè or rapping. Background Kuaiban literally means ''fast boards''. It is also known as ...
(Chinese: 快板书), Jingyun drum (Chinese: 京韵大鼓), Meihua drum (Chinese: 梅花大鼓), Xihe drum (Chinese: 西河大鼓), Danxian (Chinese: 单弦), and Taiping lyrics (Chinese: 太平歌詞), which have also promoted the exchange of performances between Taiwan and
Mainland China "Mainland China" is a geopolitical term defined as the territory governed by the People's Republic of China (including islands like Hainan or Chongming), excluding dependent territories of the PRC, and other territories within Greater China. ...
. On August 26, 1999, Wu Zhaonan announced the establishment of Wu Zhaonan's Xiangsheng Club. Only direct disciples of Wu Zhaonan could become official members. In addition to Xiangsheng, it also introduced Quyi, including Shuanghuang (Chinese: 双簧), Pingshu (Chinese: 评书), Shulaibao (Chinese: 数来宝), Kuaiban (Chinese: 快板书), Danxian (Chinese: 单弦), Taiping lyrics (Chinese: 太平歌詞), and Peking opera.


Xiangsheng in Hong Kong

Northern Xiangsheng Northern may refer to the following: Geography * North, a point in direction * Northern Europe, the northern part or region of Europe * Northern Highland, a region of Wisconsin, United States * Northern Province, Sri Lanka * Northern Range, a ra ...
has been popular in
Hong Kong Hong Kong ( (US) or (UK); , ), officially the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of the People's Republic of China ( abbr. Hong Kong SAR or HKSAR), is a city and special administrative region of China on the eastern Pearl River Delt ...
since the
Zhongyuan Zhongyuan (), the Central Plain(s), also known as Zhongtu (, lit. 'central land') and Zhongzhou (, lit. 'central region'), commonly refers to the part of the North China Plain surrounding the lower and middle reaches of the Yellow River, centere ...
period. As early as the Qing Dynasty, storytellers from China brought Xiangsheng to South
Guangdong Guangdong (, ), alternatively romanized as Canton or Kwangtung, is a coastal province in South China on the north shore of the South China Sea. The capital of the province is Guangzhou. With a population of 126.01 million (as of 2020) ...
and Hong Kong. After Hong Kong was ceded as a British colony, the development of Xiangsheng entered a unique period of localization. In the early years of the Republic of China, Hong Kong's Xiangsheng mainly performed in the street, and most Xiangsheng artists were jugglers, such as Pingshu and Kouji. Xiangsheng performers came from all walks of life. They were knowledgeable and enjoyed chatting, thus using Xiangsheng to make a living. In the 1940s and 50s,
Hong Kong cinema The cinema of Hong Kong ( zh, t=香港電影) is one of the three major threads in the history of Chinese language cinema, alongside the cinema of China and the cinema of Taiwan. As a former British colony, Hong Kong had a greater degree of po ...
began to develop rapidly, and Xiangsheng began to integrate into emerging media. In old Hong Kong movies, Xiangsheng-inspired comedy began to integrate into early Hong Kong cinema, mostly in the form of monologues and characters teasing each other. In 1957, the first Chinese-language TV media in the world was created; it was called Rediffusion Television Limited and was the predecessor of
Asia Television Asia Television Limited (, also known as ATV) is a digital media and broadcasting company in Hong Kong. Established as the first television service in Hong Kong as Rediffusion Television () on 29 May 1957, it shifted to terrestrial televisio ...
. Xiangsheng became a fixed performance for
variety show Variety show, also known as variety arts or variety entertainment, is entertainment made up of a variety of acts including musical theatre, musical performances, sketch comedy, magic (illusion), magic, acrobatics, juggling, and ventriloquism. It is ...
s. In 1967,
Television Broadcasts Limited Television Broadcasts Limited (TVB) is a television broadcasting company based in Hong Kong SAR. The Company operates five free-to-air terrestrial television channels in Hong Kong, with TVB Jade as its main Cantonese language service, and TVB ...
(TVB) was created, and the variety show ''
Enjoy Yourself Tonight ''Enjoy Yourself Tonight'' or ''EYT'' is a popular variety show that was produced in British Hong Kong. It first aired on TVB Jade on 20 November 1967. The show lasted 27 years with its last broadcast on Friday, 7 October 1994.Chinanews.com.cn ...
'' was launched. Xiangsheng began to appear in several variants in the variety show, such as the host's speech and the show to show lines.


Xiangsheng in Malaysia (Overseas Chinese)

After the
Chinese Civil War The Chinese Civil War was fought between the Kuomintang-led government of the Republic of China and forces of the Chinese Communist Party, continuing intermittently since 1 August 1927 until 7 December 1949 with a Communist victory on m ...
, a number of performers from
South China South China () is a geographical and cultural region that covers the southernmost part of China. Its precise meaning varies with context. A notable feature of South China in comparison to the rest of China is that most of its citizens are not n ...
traveled to
Malaysia Malaysia ( ; ) is a country in Southeast Asia. The federation, federal constitutional monarchy consists of States and federal territories of Malaysia, thirteen states and three federal territories, separated by the South China Sea into two r ...
for development (before Singapore's expulsion from Malaysia).
Feng Xiang Feng may refer to: *Feng (surname), one of several Chinese surnames in Mandarin: **Féng (surname) ( wikt:冯 féng 2nd tone "gallop"), very common Chinese surname **Fèng (surname) ( wikt:鳳 fèng 4th tone "phoenix"), relatively common Chinese fa ...
(Chinese: 冯翔), Bai Yan, and
Lu Ding Lu, Lü, or LU may refer to: Arts and entertainment * Lu (music), Tibetan folk music * Lu (duo), a Mexican band ** Lu (album), ''Lu'' (album) * Character from Mike, Lu & Og * Lupe Fiasco or Lu (born 1982), American musician * Lebor na hUidre, a ...
performed Xiangsheng in this region. In the multi-language environment of Malaysia, "Malaysian Xiangsheng" became different from Xiangsheng in mainland China and Taiwan. Since Mandarin Chinese is not a mainstream language in Malaysia, there are few professional performers in
Malaysia Malaysia ( ; ) is a country in Southeast Asia. The federation, federal constitutional monarchy consists of States and federal territories of Malaysia, thirteen states and three federal territories, separated by the South China Sea into two r ...
.


Xiangsheng in North America

In 1984, 19-year old
Canadian Canadians (french: Canadiens) are people identified with the country of Canada. This connection may be residential, legal, historical or cultural. For most Canadians, many (or all) of these connections exist and are collectively the source of ...
comedian A comedian or comic is a person who seeks to entertain an audience by making them laugh. This might be through jokes or amusing Amusement is the state of experiencing humorous and entertaining events or situations while the person or a ...
Mark Rowswell started learning
Chinese Chinese can refer to: * Something related to China * Chinese people, people of Chinese nationality, citizenship, and/or ethnicity **''Zhonghua minzu'', the supra-ethnic concept of the Chinese nation ** List of ethnic groups in China, people of va ...
at the
University of Toronto The University of Toronto (UToronto or U of T) is a public research university in Toronto, Ontario, Canada, located on the grounds that surround Queen's Park. It was founded by royal charter in 1827 as King's College, the first institution ...
. After graduating in 1988, he went on to study Xiangsheng at
Peking University Peking University (PKU; ) is a public research university in Beijing, China. The university is funded by the Ministry of Education. Peking University was established as the Imperial University of Peking in 1898 when it received its royal charter ...
with a
Chinese Chinese can refer to: * Something related to China * Chinese people, people of Chinese nationality, citizenship, and/or ethnicity **''Zhonghua minzu'', the supra-ethnic concept of the Chinese nation ** List of ethnic groups in China, people of va ...
comedian A comedian or comic is a person who seeks to entertain an audience by making them laugh. This might be through jokes or amusing Amusement is the state of experiencing humorous and entertaining events or situations while the person or a ...
and Xiangsheng master, Jiang Kun (姜昆). He started using the
Chinese Chinese can refer to: * Something related to China * Chinese people, people of Chinese nationality, citizenship, and/or ethnicity **''Zhonghua minzu'', the supra-ethnic concept of the Chinese nation ** List of ethnic groups in China, people of va ...
name '
Dashan Mark Henry Rowswell, CM (born May 23, 1965), better known by his Chinese stage name Dashan (), is a Canadian comedian and television personality popular in China. Relatively unknown in the West, from the late 1980s through the early 2000s Dash ...
' (大山), now a household name in China.
Dashan Mark Henry Rowswell, CM (born May 23, 1965), better known by his Chinese stage name Dashan (), is a Canadian comedian and television personality popular in China. Relatively unknown in the West, from the late 1980s through the early 2000s Dash ...
has consistently improved his
Chinese Chinese can refer to: * Something related to China * Chinese people, people of Chinese nationality, citizenship, and/or ethnicity **''Zhonghua minzu'', the supra-ethnic concept of the Chinese nation ** List of ethnic groups in China, people of va ...
over thirty years, frequently appearing on national
Chinese Chinese can refer to: * Something related to China * Chinese people, people of Chinese nationality, citizenship, and/or ethnicity **''Zhonghua minzu'', the supra-ethnic concept of the Chinese nation ** List of ethnic groups in China, people of va ...
television. His career has consisted of a wide variety work, not just Xiangsheng, and in recent years he has gravitated more towards Western-style
stand-up comedy Stand-up comedy is a comedy, comedic performance to a live audience in which the performer addresses the audience directly from the stage. The performer is known as a comedian, a comic or a stand-up. Stand-up comedy consists of One-line joke ...
in
Chinese Chinese can refer to: * Something related to China * Chinese people, people of Chinese nationality, citizenship, and/or ethnicity **''Zhonghua minzu'', the supra-ethnic concept of the Chinese nation ** List of ethnic groups in China, people of va ...
, with elements of Xiangsheng incorporated into the act.
Dashan Mark Henry Rowswell, CM (born May 23, 1965), better known by his Chinese stage name Dashan (), is a Canadian comedian and television personality popular in China. Relatively unknown in the West, from the late 1980s through the early 2000s Dash ...
has served informally as a cultural ambassador, using his work to help bridge cultural gaps between
Canada Canada is a country in North America. Its ten provinces and three territories extend from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean and northward into the Arctic Ocean, covering over , making it the world's second-largest country by tot ...
and
China China, officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), is a country in East Asia. It is the world's most populous country, with a population exceeding 1.4 billion, slightly ahead of India. China spans the equivalent of five time zones and ...
. In 2012, American
comedian A comedian or comic is a person who seeks to entertain an audience by making them laugh. This might be through jokes or amusing Amusement is the state of experiencing humorous and entertaining events or situations while the person or a ...
Jesse Appell, known as Ai Jiexi (艾杰西) in
China China, officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), is a country in East Asia. It is the world's most populous country, with a population exceeding 1.4 billion, slightly ahead of India. China spans the equivalent of five time zones and ...
, started on his journey with Xiangsheng. Originally from
Boston Boston (), officially the City of Boston, is the state capital and most populous city of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts, as well as the cultural and financial center of the New England region of the United States. It is the 24th- mo ...
,
Massachusetts Massachusetts (Massachusett language, Massachusett: ''Muhsachuweesut assachusett writing systems, məhswatʃəwiːsət'' English: , ), officially the Commonwealth of Massachusetts, is the most populous U.S. state, state in the New England ...
, Appell went to
Brandeis University , mottoeng = "Truth even unto its innermost parts" , established = , type = Private research university , accreditation = NECHE , president = Ronald D. Liebowitz , pro ...
where he joined the
Global China Connection Global China Connection or GCC (Mandarin Chinese: 全球中国联接) is a student-run 501(c)3 nonprofit organization created for university students and young professionals of all nationalities to encourage China's emergence in the world in a no ...
(GCC) and regularly performed stand-up comedy. He went to
China China, officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), is a country in East Asia. It is the world's most populous country, with a population exceeding 1.4 billion, slightly ahead of India. China spans the equivalent of five time zones and ...
in September of 2012 to study
Chinese Chinese can refer to: * Something related to China * Chinese people, people of Chinese nationality, citizenship, and/or ethnicity **''Zhonghua minzu'', the supra-ethnic concept of the Chinese nation ** List of ethnic groups in China, people of va ...
at
Tsinghua University Tsinghua University (; abbreviation, abbr. THU) is a National university, national Public university, public research university in Beijing, China. The university is funded by the Ministry of Education of the People's Republic of China, Minis ...
as a
Fulbright Scholar The Fulbright Program, including the Fulbright–Hays Program, is one of several United States Cultural Exchange Programs with the goal of improving intercultural relations, cultural diplomacy, and intercultural competence between the people of ...
. There, he improved his
Chinese Chinese can refer to: * Something related to China * Chinese people, people of Chinese nationality, citizenship, and/or ethnicity **''Zhonghua minzu'', the supra-ethnic concept of the Chinese nation ** List of ethnic groups in China, people of va ...
and was awarded th
Critical Language Enhancement Award (CLEA)
As part of his
Fulbright Scholarship The Fulbright Program, including the Fulbright–Hays Program, is one of several United States Cultural Exchange Programs with the goal of improving intercultural relations, cultural diplomacy, and intercultural competence between the people of ...
, he studied Xiangsheng with a master of the craft,
Ding Guangquan Ding Guangquan (14 October 1944 – 18 January 2018) was a Chinese comedian. He mainly performed Xiangsheng (crosstalk), a form of traditional Chinese comedy. He was a senior actor in the China Coal-Mine Art Troupe and had accepted over 40 stude ...
(丁广泉). Appell founded a
comedy Comedy is a genre of fiction that consists of discourses or works intended to be humorous or amusing by inducing laughter, especially in theatre, film, stand-up comedy, television, radio, books, or any other entertainment medium. The term o ...
center, LaughBeijing, that hosted over 300 shows per year in
Beijing } Beijing ( ; ; ), alternatively romanized as Peking ( ), is the capital of the People's Republic of China. It is the center of power and development of the country. Beijing is the world's most populous national capital city, with over 21 ...
from 2016 to 2020.Some of his work today also focuses on bringing the Western-style stand-up comedy to
China China, officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), is a country in East Asia. It is the world's most populous country, with a population exceeding 1.4 billion, slightly ahead of India. China spans the equivalent of five time zones and ...
. He sees himself as a cultural ambassador, combining his talents with the power of the
Internet The Internet (or internet) is the global system of interconnected computer networks that uses the Internet protocol suite (TCP/IP) to communicate between networks and devices. It is a '' network of networks'' that consists of private, pub ...
to help U.S.-China relations and bridge cultural gaps.


As social commentary

The small scale and popularity of Xiangsheng make it second only to word of mouth in reflecting popular concerns. Hou Baolin and others have said that Xiangsheng items are "works of comic nature which use satire and humour as their principal base. The cross talks use witty speech, bitter, ridiculous ridicule, in order to achieve the purpose of arrogant "big laugh" and entertaining people. Its earliest form was derived from the juggling of "Yuyou". In these jokes, artists often pinned their mockery and whipping against the rulers. Their satirical content strikes home at contemporary malpractices and also often includes political satire." The role of Xiangsheng in the social commentary was seen after the fall of the Gang of Four in 1976, when Xiangsheng performances provided the first open criticisms of the gang. After 1976, Xiangsheng has also satirized corrupt officials and members of the
Communist Party of China The Chinese Communist Party (CCP), officially the Communist Party of China (CPC), is the founding and sole ruling party of the People's Republic of China (PRC). Under the leadership of Mao Zedong, the CCP emerged victorious in the Chinese Civil ...
, although criticism of the party as an entity remains off-limits.


Xiangsheng classifications


By number of actors

* Dankou Xiangsheng: a monologue by a solo performer * Duikou Xiangsheng: a dialogue between two performers * Qunkou Xiangsheng: a group act with at least three performers


By content

* Ironic Xiangsheng: performers criticize themselves, others, or concepts, such as Hou Baolin's ''Walking in the dark'' (Chinese:夜行记) (criticizes people who do not follow the traffic rules), Jiang Kun and
Li Wenhua Li Wenhua (; 15 January 1932 – 23 December 2022) was a Chinese ecologist, and an academician of the Chinese Academy of Engineering. Biography Li was born in Guangrao County, Shandong, on 15 January 1932. After high school in 1949, he studied, ...
's ''Photograph'' (criticizes the social phenomenon during the
Cultural Revolution The Cultural Revolution, formally known as the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution, was a sociopolitical movement in the People's Republic of China (PRC) launched by Mao Zedong in 1966, and lasting until his death in 1976. Its stated goal ...
). * Complimentary Xiangsheng: performers praise themselves, others, or concepts, such as
Ma Ji Ma Ji (; 2 August 1934 – 20 December 2006), born Ma Shuhuai (), was a Chinese xiangsheng comedian. He was one of his generation's most popular and influential xiangsheng performers and was mentor to many younger performers. His disciples include ...
's ''The New Peach Garden'' (praises
socialism Socialism is a left-wing economic philosophy and movement encompassing a range of economic systems characterized by the dominance of social ownership of the means of production as opposed to private ownership. As a term, it describes the e ...
), Hou Yuewen's ''Story of Beijing–Kowloon railway'' (praises the constructor of
Beijing–Kowloon railway The Beijing–Kowloon railway, also known as the Jingjiu railway () is a railway connecting Beijing West railway station in Beijing to Shenzhen railway station in Shenzhen, Guangdong Province. It is connected with Hong Kong's East Rail across th ...
) * Entertaining Xiangsheng: performers aim to entertain, such as ''Speaking in tongues''


By chronology

* Tradition Xiangsheng: in the Late Qing Dynasty * New Xiangsheng: after 1949 * Contemporary Xiangsheng: after 1980


By genre

* Ma Sect Xiangsheng: the representative personage
Ma Sanli Ma Sanli (Xiao'erjing: , ; 1914 – 11 February 2003) was a Chinese comedian in the traditional Xiangsheng or "crosstalk" style. Biography Ma was born in Beijing; he was of the Hui ethnic group, and the son and grandson of practitioners of Xiang ...
, Ma Zhiming (Chinese: 马志明) * Chang Sect Xiangsheng: the representative personage Chang Lianan, Chang Baokun (Chinese: 常宝堃) * Hou Sect Xiangsheng: the representative personage Hou Baolin * Liu Sect Xiangsheng: the representative personage
Liu Baorui / ( or ) is an East Asia, East Asian surname. pinyin: in Mandarin Chinese, in Cantonese. It is the family name of the Han dynasty emperors. The character originally meant 'kill', but is now used only as a surname. It is listed 252nd in the c ...
(Chinese: 刘宝瑞)


Notable performers


*
Zhang Sanlu Zhang may refer to: Chinese culture, etc. * Zhang (surname) (張/张), common Chinese surname ** Zhang (surname 章), a rarer Chinese surname * Zhang County (漳县), of Dingxi, Gansu * Zhang River (漳河), a river flowing mainly in Henan * ''Z ...
() is considered to have been one of the fathers of Xiangsheng. Zhang was born in Beijing in the late Qing Dynasty. His disciples include Zhu Shaowen,
A Yantao A, or a, is the first Letter (alphabet), letter and the first vowel of the Latin alphabet, Latin alphabet, used in the English alphabet, modern English alphabet, the alphabets of other western European languages and others worldwide. Its name ...
, and Shen Chunhe. *
A Yantao A, or a, is the first Letter (alphabet), letter and the first vowel of the Latin alphabet, Latin alphabet, used in the English alphabet, modern English alphabet, the alphabets of other western European languages and others worldwide. Its name ...
() better known by his
stage name A stage name is a pseudonym used by performers and entertainers—such as actors, comedians, singers, and musicians. Such professional aliases are adopted for a wide variety of reasons and they may be similar, or nearly identical, to an individu ...
A Er (阿二) or A Cier (阿刺二), was a Xiangsheng performer of
Manchu The Manchus (; ) are a Tungusic East Asian ethnic group native to Manchuria in Northeast Asia. They are an officially recognized ethnic minority in China and the people from whom Manchuria derives its name. The Later Jin (1616–1636) and ...
descent. His disciples include En Xu, Gao Wenkui, Chun Changlong, and Shen Zhushan. A Yaotao was born in Beijing to a rich family of the Sumuru clan belonging to the
Eight Banners The Eight Banners (in Manchu language, Manchu: ''jakūn gūsa'', ) were administrative and military divisions under the Later Jin (1616–1636), Later Jin and Qing dynasty, Qing dynasties of China into which all Manchu people, Manchu households ...
. During his childhood years, he developed an interest in traditional
Chinese opera Traditional Chinese opera (), or ''Xiqu'', is a form of musical theatre in China with roots going back to the early periods in China. It is an amalgamation of various art forms that existed in ancient China, and evolved gradually over more tha ...
and experimented with several different vocal techniques. Later, his family came down in the world. In order to support his family, he studied under
Zhang Sanlu Zhang may refer to: Chinese culture, etc. * Zhang (surname) (張/张), common Chinese surname ** Zhang (surname 章), a rarer Chinese surname * Zhang County (漳县), of Dingxi, Gansu * Zhang River (漳河), a river flowing mainly in Henan * ''Z ...
and became a second-generation Xiangsheng performer. *Shen Chunhe, better known by his
stage name A stage name is a pseudonym used by performers and entertainers—such as actors, comedians, singers, and musicians. Such professional aliases are adopted for a wide variety of reasons and they may be similar, or nearly identical, to an individu ...
Shen Er (沈二), told stories before performing Xiangsheng. He studied under Zhang Sanlu and became a second-generation Xiangsheng performer. His disciples include Wei Kunzhi, Wang Youdao, Li Changchun, Gao Wenyuan, Feng Kunzhi, and Yu Erfu. *Zhu Shaowen (1829–1903), known by his
stage name A stage name is a pseudonym used by performers and entertainers—such as actors, comedians, singers, and musicians. Such professional aliases are adopted for a wide variety of reasons and they may be similar, or nearly identical, to an individu ...
Qiongbupa (穷不怕), was one of the fathers of Xiangsheng. He was born in Beijing, and his ancestral home was
Shaoxing Shaoxing (; ) is a prefecture-level city on the southern shore of Hangzhou Bay in northeastern Zhejiang province, China. It was formerly known as Kuaiji and Shanyin and abbreviated in Chinese as (''Yuè'') from the area's former inhabitants. ...
,
Zhejiang Zhejiang ( or , ; , also romanized as Chekiang) is an eastern, coastal province of the People's Republic of China. Its capital and largest city is Hangzhou, and other notable cities include Ningbo and Wenzhou. Zhejiang is bordered by Jiang ...
. Zhu was honored as one of the "Eight Oddities of Tianqiao" (天桥八怪). His disciples include Pinyouben, Fu Guizhen, Xu Changfu, and Fan Changli. *Hou Baolin *Ma Sanli *Liu Baorui () *Ma Ji *
Chang Baohua Chang Baohua (December 1930 – 7 September 2018) was a Chinese xiangsheng comedian of Manchu ethnicity. He was one of the sixth generation of well-known Chinese xiangsheng actors. He authored one hundred and seventy works. Chang was a member of ...
*
Ding Guangquan Ding Guangquan (14 October 1944 – 18 January 2018) was a Chinese comedian. He mainly performed Xiangsheng (crosstalk), a form of traditional Chinese comedy. He was a senior actor in the China Coal-Mine Art Troupe and had accepted over 40 stude ...
* Jiang Kun *
Hou Yaowen Hou Yaowen (; July 17, 1948 – June 23, 2007), or Hou Yuewen (), was a Chinese xiangsheng actor. Biography Hou Yaowen was born in 1948, as the third son of Hou Baolin. He became a xiangsheng actor in 1960. He was selected as one of the Chinese To ...
*
Guo Qiru Guo Qiru (; 1900 – 1969) was a Chinese xiangsheng performer. Biography On 12 April 1900, Guo was born in Beijing, to a poor family. He belonged to the Manchu ethnic group. He was educated in an old-style private school for about 6 years. ...
*
Dashan Mark Henry Rowswell, CM (born May 23, 1965), better known by his Chinese stage name Dashan (), is a Canadian comedian and television personality popular in China. Relatively unknown in the West, from the late 1980s through the early 2000s Dash ...
(Mark Rowswell) *
Feng Gong Feng Gong (; born 6 December 1957) is a Chinese actor, ''xiangsheng'' performer, director, screenwriter. and politician. He is best known for his performances in the annual CCTV New Year's Gala, having made more appearances on the show than ever ...
*
Guo Degang Guo Degang () is a Chinese crosstalk (''xiangsheng'') comedian and actor. Guo's film appearances include ''The 601st Phone Call'', ''Just Another Pandora's Box'', and ''Mystery''. Guo has also directed the films ''Our Happiness'' and ''The Face ...
*
Yu Qian Yu Qian (; 1398–1457), courtesy name Tingyi, art name Jie'an, was a Chinese official who served under the Ming dynasty. Biography Yu Qian was born in Qiantang County, Hangzhou, Zhejiang. He started his career in the Ming civil service after o ...
() *
Yue Yunpeng Yue Yunpeng (; born 15 April 1985) is a Chinese actor and ''xiangsheng'' performer, best known in film for portraying Zhu Tianpeng in ''Buddies in India'' (2017), Yue Yunpeng in ''Top Funny Comedian: The Movie'' and Li Shuaiting in ''Revenge fo ...
* Sun Yue () *
Feng Yi-kang Feng may refer to: *Feng (surname), one of several Chinese surnames in Mandarin: **Féng (surname) ( wikt:冯 féng 2nd tone "gallop"), very common Chinese surname **Fèng (surname) ( wikt:鳳 fèng 4th tone "phoenix"), relatively common Chinese fa ...
() * Sung Shao-ching () *
Lee Li-chun Lee Li-chun (; born 2 May 1952) is a Taiwanese actor and ''xiangsheng'' performer. Career Lee is known for his work on stage with , starring in ''Art'' alongside Chin Shih-chieh and Ku Pao-ming in 2003. In 2005, Lee took the lead role in Godot' ...
() * Li Mu (Liam Bates) ()


See also

*
Manzai is a traditional style of comedy in Japanese culture comparable to double act comedy or stand-up comedy. usually involves two performers ()—a straight man () and a double act, funny man ()—trading jokes at great speed. Most of the jokes ...
*
Rakugo is a form of ''yose'', which is itself a form of Japanese verbal entertainment. The lone sits on a raised platform, a . Using only a and a as props, and without standing up from the seiza sitting position, the rakugo artist depicts a long ...
*
Shuochang ''Quyi'' ("melodious art") and ''shuochang yishu'' ("speaking and singing art") are umbrella terms for over 300 regional genres of traditional Chinese oral performing arts. ''Quyi'' is distinguished from ''xiqu'' (Chinese opera) by its emphasis o ...
*
Kouji ''Kouji'' ({{zh, c=口技), which can be translated literally as "mouth skill" or "skill of mouth" is a Chinese vocal mimicry performance art which utilizes the human speech organs to mimic the sounds of everyday life. When this vocal mimicry i ...
*
Shulaibao Shulaibao ( zh, c=wikt:数来宝, 数来宝, p=shǔláibǎo), also known as doggerel, jingle or clever tongue, is a Chinese folk art form consisting of spoken word poetry. It is usually performed by one person or a pair of performers. The actors ac ...
*
Double act A double act (also known as a comedy duo) is a form of comedy originating in the British music hall tradition, and American vaudeville, in which two comedians perform together as a single act. Pairings are typically long-term, in some cases f ...
*
Pingshu ''Pingshu'' () or ''pinghua'' () refers to the traditional Han Chinese performing art of storytelling with no musical accompaniment. It is better known as ''pingshu'' in northern China and ''pinghua'' in southern China. Performing art Pingsh ...


References


External links


China Xiangsheng Online
() (Simplified Chinese)
Tianjin Xiangsheng Online
() (Simplified Chinese)
Comedians Workshop (based in Taiwan)
() (Traditional Chinese)
A Translation of a routine on "Learning Manchu"
by Lei Lin, Harvard University
Stifled Laughter: How the Communist Party Killed Chinese Humor, from Danwei.org
{{Authority control Stand-up comedy