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''Xian'' () refers to a person or similar entity having a long life or being immortal. The concept of ''xian'' has different implications dependent upon the specific context: philosophical, religious, mythological, or other symbolic or cultural occurrence. The Chinese word ''xian'' is translatable into English as: * (''in Daoist philosophy and cosmology'') spiritually immortal; transcendent human; celestial being * (''in Daoist religion and pantheon'') physically immortal; immortal person; an immortal; saint * (''in Chinese alchemy'') alchemist; one who seeks the
elixir of life The elixir of life, also known as elixir of immortality, is a potion that supposedly grants the drinker eternal life and/or eternal youth. This elixir was also said to cure all diseases. Alchemists in various ages and cultures sought the mean ...
; one who practices longevity techniques ** (''or by extension'') alchemical, dietary, or qigong methods for attaining
immortality Immortality is the concept of eternal life. Some modern species may possess biological immortality. Some scientists, futurists, and philosophers have theorized about the immortality of the human body, with some suggesting that human immorta ...
* (''in
Chinese mythology Chinese mythology () is mythology that has been passed down in oral form or recorded in literature in the geographic area now known as Greater China. Chinese mythology includes many varied myths from regional and cultural traditions. Much of ...
'') wizard; magician; shaman; sorcerer * (''in popular Chinese literature'') genie; elf, fairy; nymph; (''xian jing'' is fairyland,
faery A fairy (also fay, fae, fey, fair folk, or faerie) is a type of mythical being or legendary creature found in the folklore of multiple European cultures (including Celtic, Slavic, Germanic, English, and French folklore), a form of spirit, ...
) * (''based on the
folk etymology Folk etymology (also known as popular etymology, analogical reformation, reanalysis, morphological reanalysis or etymological reinterpretation) is a change in a word or phrase resulting from the replacement of an unfamiliar form by a more famili ...
for the character , a compound of the characters for ''person'' and ''mountain) sage living high in the mountains; mountain-man; hermit; recluse * (''as a metaphorical modifier'') immortal alent accomplished person; celestial eauty marvelous; extraordinary *(In
new-age New Age is a range of spiritual or religious practices and beliefs which rapidly grew in Western society during the early 1970s. Its highly eclectic and unsystematic structure makes a precise definition difficult. Although many scholars conside ...
conception) seeker who takes refuge in immortality (longevity for the realization of divinity); transcended person elfrecoded by the "higher self"; divine soul; fully established being ''Xian'' semantically developed from meaning spiritual "immortality; enlightenment", to physical "immortality; longevity" involving methods such as alchemy, breath meditation, and tai chi chuan, and eventually to legendary and figurative "immortality".
Victor H. Mair Victor Henry Mair (; born March 25, 1943) is an American sinologist. He is a professor of Chinese at the University of Pennsylvania. Among other accomplishments, Mair has edited the standard ''Columbia History of Chinese Literature'' and the ''Col ...
describes the ''xian'' archetype as:
They are immune to heat and cold, untouched by the elements, and can fly, mounting upward with a fluttering motion. They dwell apart from the chaotic world of man, subsist on air and dew, are not anxious like ordinary people, and have the smooth skin and innocent faces of children. The transcendents live an effortless existence that is best described as spontaneous. They recall the ancient Indian ascetics and holy men known as '' ṛṣi'' who possessed similar traits.


The word ''xian''

The most famous Chinese compound of ''xiān'' is ''Bāxiān'' ( "the Eight Immortals"). Other common words include ''xiānrén'' ( sennin in Japanese, "immortal person; transcendent", see '' Xiānrén Dòng''), ''xiānrénzhăng'' ( "immortal's palm;
cactus A cactus (, or less commonly, cactus) is a member of the plant family Cactaceae, a family comprising about 127 genera with some 1750 known species of the order Caryophyllales. The word ''cactus'' derives, through Latin, from the Ancient Gree ...
"), ''xiānnǚ'' ( "immortal woman; female celestial; angel"), and ''shénxiān'' ( "gods and immortals; divine immortal"). Besides humans, ''xiān'' can also refer to supernatural animals. The mythological ''húlijīng'' (lit. "fox spirit") "fox fairy; vixen; witch; enchantress" has an alternate name of ''húxiān'' (lit. "fox immortal"). The
etymology Etymology () The New Oxford Dictionary of English (1998) – p. 633 "Etymology /ˌɛtɪˈmɒlədʒi/ the study of the class in words and the way their meanings have changed throughout time". is the study of the history of the form of words ...
of ''xiān'' remains uncertain. The circa 200 CE '' Shiming'', a
Chinese dictionary Chinese dictionaries date back over two millennia to the Han dynasty, which is a significantly longer lexicographical history than any other language. There are hundreds of dictionaries for the Chinese language, and this article discusses some of ...
that provided word-pun "etymologies", defines ''xiān'' () as "to get old and not die," and explains it as someone who ''qiān'' ( "moves into") the mountains."
Edward H. Schafer Edward Hetsel Schafer (23 August 1913 – 9 February 1991) was an American historian, sinologist, and writer noted for his expertise on the Tang Dynasty, and was a professor of Chinese at University of California, Berkeley for 35 years. Sc ...
defined ''xian'' as "transcendent, sylph (a being who, through alchemical, gymnastic and other disciplines, has achieved a refined and perhaps immortal body, able to fly like a bird beyond the trammels of the base material world into the realms of aether, and nourish himself on air and dew.)" Schafer noted ''xian'' was cognate to ''xian'' "soar up", ''qian'' "remove", and ''xianxian'' "a flapping dance movement"; and compared Chinese ''yuren'' "feathered man; ''xian''" with English
peri In Persian mythology, peris (singular: peri; from fa, پَری, translit=parī, , plural , ; borrowed in European languages through ota, پَری, translit=peri) are exquisite, winged spirits renowned for their beauty. Peris were later ad ...
"a fairy or supernatural being in Persian mythology" ( Persian pari from ''par'' "feather; wing"). Two linguistic hypotheses for the etymology of ''xian'' involve
Arabic Arabic (, ' ; , ' or ) is a Semitic language spoken primarily across the Arab world.Semitic languages: an international handbook / edited by Stefan Weninger; in collaboration with Geoffrey Khan, Michael P. Streck, Janet C. E.Watson; Walter ...
and
Sino-Tibetan languages Sino-Tibetan, also cited as Trans-Himalayan in a few sources, is a family of more than 400 languages, second only to Indo-European in number of native speakers. The vast majority of these are the 1.3 billion native speakers of Chinese languages ...
. Wu and Davis suggested the source was ''
jinn Jinn ( ar, , ') – also romanized as djinn or anglicized as genies (with the broader meaning of spirit or demon, depending on sources) – are invisible creatures in early pre-Islamic Arabian religious systems and later in Islamic ...
'', or ''jinni'' "genie" (from Arabic ''جني'' ''jinnī''). "The marvelous powers of the ''Hsien'' are so like those of the ''jinni'' of the Arabian Nights that one wonders whether the Arabic word, ''jinn'', may not be derived from the Chinese ''Hsien''." Axel Schuessler's etymological dictionary suggests a Sino-Tibetan connection between ''xiān'' (Old Chinese *''san'' or *''sen'') "'An immortal' ... men and women who attain supernatural abilities; after death they become immortals and deities who can fly through the air" and
Tibetan Tibetan may mean: * of, from, or related to Tibet * Tibetan people, an ethnic group * Tibetan language: ** Classical Tibetan, the classical language used also as a contemporary written standard ** Standard Tibetan, the most widely used spoken diale ...
''gšen'' < ''g-syen'' "shaman, one who has supernatural abilities, incl
ding Ding may refer to: Bronze and ceramics * Ding (vessel), a bronze or ceramic cauldron used in ancient and early imperial China * Ding ware, ceramics produced in Dingzhou in medieval China People * Ding (surname) (丁), a Chinese surname and lis ...
travel through the air".


The character and its variants

The word ''xiān'' is written with three characters , , or , which combine the logographic " radical" ''rén'' ( or "person; human") with two "phonetic" elements (see Chinese character classification). The oldest recorded ''xiān'' character has a ''xiān'' ("rise up; ascend") phonetic supposedly because immortals could "ascend into the heavens". (Compare ''qiān'' "move; transfer; change" combining this phonetic and the motion radical.) The usual modern ''xiān'' character , and its rare variant , have a ''shān'' ( "mountain") phonetic. For a character analysis, Schipper interprets "'the human being of the mountain,' or alternatively, 'human mountain'. The two explanations are appropriate to these beings: they haunt the holy mountains, while also embodying nature." The ''
Classic of Poetry The ''Classic of Poetry'', also ''Shijing'' or ''Shih-ching'', translated variously as the ''Book of Songs'', ''Book of Odes'', or simply known as the ''Odes'' or ''Poetry'' (; ''Shī''), is the oldest existing collection of Chinese poetry, c ...
'' (220/3) contains the oldest occurrence of the character , reduplicated as ''xiānxiān'' ( "dance lightly; hop about; jump around"), and rhymed with ''qiān'' (). "But when they have drunk too much, Their deportment becomes light and frivolous—They leave their seats, and [] go elsewhere, They keep [] dancing and capering." (tr.
James Legge James Legge (; 20 December 181529 November 1897) was a Scottish linguist, missionary, sinologist, and translator who was best known as an early translator of Classical Chinese texts into English. Legge served as a representative of the Londo ...
) Needham and
Wang Wang may refer to: Names * Wang (surname) (王), a common Chinese surname * Wāng (汪), a less common Chinese surname * Titles in Chinese nobility * A title in Korean nobility * A title in Mongolian nobility Places * Wang River in Thaila ...
suggest ''xian'' was cognate with '' wu'' "shamanic" dancing. Paper writes, "the function of the term ''xian'' in a line describing dancing may be to denote the height of the leaps. Since, "to live for a long time" has no etymological relation to ''xian'', it may be a later accretion." The 121 CE '' Shuowen Jiezi'', the first important dictionary of Chinese characters, does not enter except in the definition for ( "name of an ancient immortal"). It defines as "live long and move away" and as "appearance of a person on a mountaintop".


Textual references

This section chronologically reviews how Chinese texts describe ''xian'' "immortals; transcendents". While the early ''Zhuangzi'', ''Chuci'', and ''Liezi'' texts allegorically used ''xian'' immortals and magic islands to describe spiritual immortality, later ones like the ''Shenxian zhuan'' and ''Baopuzi'' took immortality literally and described esoteric Chinese alchemical techniques for physical longevity. On one the hand, '' neidan'' ( "internal alchemy") techniques included ''taixi'' ( "embryo respiration") breath control, meditation, visualization, sexual training, and Tao Yin exercises (which later evolved into qigong and tai chi chuan). On the other hand, '' waidan'' ( "external alchemy") techniques for immortality included alchemical recipes, magic plants, rare minerals, herbal medicines, drugs, and dietetic techniques like inedia. The word ''yuren'' "feathered person" later meant "Daoist"). Besides the following major Chinese texts, many others use both graphic variants of ''xian''. ''Xian'' () occurs in the '' Chunqiu Fanlu'', ''
Fengsu Tongyi ''Fengsu Tongyi'' (), also known as ''Fengsu Tong'', is a book written about 195 AD by Ying Shao, who lived during the later Eastern Han period. The manuscript is similar to an almanac An almanac (also spelled ''almanack'' and ''almanach'') is ...
'', '' Qian fu lun'', ''Fayan'', and ''Shenjian''; ''xian'' () occurs in the ''Caizhong langji'', ''Fengsu Tongyi'', ''Guanzi'', and ''Shenjian''.


''Zhuangzi''

Two circa 3rd century BCE "Outer Chapters" of the '' Zhuangzi'' ( " ook ofMaster Zhuang") use the archaic character ''xian'' . Chapter 11 has a parable about "Cloud Chief" ()  and "Big Concealment" () that uses the ''Shijing'' compound ''xianxian'' ("dance; jump"):
Big Concealment said, "If you confuse the constant strands of Heaven and violate the true form of things, then Dark Heaven will reach no fulfillment. Instead, the beasts will scatter from their herds, the birds will cry all night, disaster will come to the grass and trees, misfortune will reach even to the insects. Ah, this is the fault of men who 'govern'!"
"Then what should I do?" said Cloud Chief.
"Ah," said Big Concealment, "you are too far gone! [] Up, up, stir yourself and be off!"
Cloud Chief said, "Heavenly Master, it has been hard indeed for me to meet with you—I beg one word of instruction!"
"Well, then—mind‑nourishment!" said Big Concealment. "You have only to rest in inaction and things will transform themselves. Smash your form and body, spit out hearing and eyesight, forget you are a thing among other things, and you may join in great unity with the deep and boundless. Undo the mind, slough off spirit, be blank and soulless, and the ten thousand things one by one will return to the root—return to the root and not know why. Dark and undifferentiated chaos—to the end of life none will depart from it. But if you try to know it, you have already departed from it. Do not ask what its name is, do not try to observe its form. Things will live naturally end of themselves."
Cloud Chief said, "The Heavenly Master has favored me with this Virtue, instructed me in this Silence. All my life I have been looking for it, and now at last I have it!" He bowed his head twice, stood up, took his leave, and went away. (11)
Chapter 12 uses ''xian'' when mythical Emperor Yao describes a ''shengren'' ( "sagely person").
The true sage is a quail at rest, a little fledgling at its meal, a bird in flight who leaves no trail behind. When the world has the Way, he joins in the chorus with all other things. When the world is without the Way, he nurses his Virtue and retires in leisure. And after a thousand years, should he weary of the world, he will leave it and [] ascend to [] the immortals, riding on those white clouds all the way up to the village of God. (12)
Without using the word ''xian'', several ''Zhuangzi'' passages employ ''xian'' imagery, like flying in the clouds, to describe individuals with superhuman powers. For example, Chapter 1, within the circa 3rd century BCE "Inner Chapters", has two portrayals. First is this description of Liezi (below).
Lieh Tzu could ride the wind and go soaring around with cool and breezy skill, but after fifteen days he came back to earth. As far as the search for good fortune went, he didn't fret and worry. He escaped the trouble of walking, but he still had to depend on something to get around. If he had only mounted on the truth of Heaven and Earth, ridden the changes of the six breaths, and thus wandered through the boundless, then what would he have had to depend on? Therefore, I say, the Perfect Man has no self; the Holy Man has no merit; the Sage has no fame. (1)
Second is this description of a ''shenren'' ( "divine person").
He said that there is a Holy Man living on faraway [] Ku-she Mountain, with skin like ice or snow, and gentle and shy like a young girl. He doesn't eat the five grains, but sucks the wind, drinks the dew, climbs up on the clouds and mist, rides a flying dragon, and wanders beyond the
Four Seas The Four Seas () were four bodies of water that metaphorically made up the boundaries of ancient China. There is a sea for each for the four cardinal directions. The West Sea is Qinghai Lake, the East Sea is the East China Sea, the North Sea is ...
. By concentrating his spirit, he can protect creatures from sickness and plague and make the harvest plentiful. (1)
The authors of the ''Zhuangzi'' had a lyrical view of life and death, seeing them as complementary aspects of natural changes. This is antithetical to the physical immortality (''changshengbulao'' "live forever and never age") sought by later Daoist alchemists. Consider this famous passage about accepting death.
Chuang Tzu's wife died. When Hui Tzu went to convey his condolences, he found Chuang Tzu sitting with his legs sprawled out, pounding on a tub and singing. "You lived with her, she brought up your children and grew old," said Hui Tzu. "It should be enough simply not to weep at her death. But pounding on a tub and singing—this is going too far, isn't it?" Chuang Tzu said, "You're wrong. When she first died, do you think I didn't grieve like anyone else? But I looked back to her beginning and the time before she was born. Not only the time before she was born, but the time before she had a body. Not only the time before she had a body, but the time before she had a spirit. In the midst of the jumble of wonder and mystery a change took place and she had a spirit. Another change and she had a body. Another change and she was born. Now there's been another change and she's dead. It's just like the progression of the four seasons, spring, summer, fall, winter."
"Now she's going to lie down peacefully in a vast room. If I were to follow after her bawling and sobbing, it would show that I don't understand anything about fate. So I stopped. (18)
Alan Fox explains this anecdote about Zhuangzi's wife.
Many conclusions can be reached on the basis of this story, but it seems that death is regarded as a natural part of the ebb and flow of transformations which constitute the movement of Dao. To grieve over death, or to fear one's own death, for that matter, is to arbitrarily evaluate what is inevitable. Of course, this reading is somewhat ironic given the fact that much of the subsequent Daoist tradition comes to seek longevity and immortality, and bases some of their basic models on the ''Zhuangzi''.


''Chuci''

The 3rd-2nd century BCE ''
Chuci The ''Chu ci'', variously translated as ''Verses of Chu,'' ''Songs of Chu'', or ''Elegies of Chu'', is an ancient anthology of Chinese poetry including works traditionally attributed mainly to Qu Yuan and Song Yu from the Warring States period ...
'' ( "Lyrics of Chu") anthology of poems uses ''xian'' once and ''xian'' twice, reflecting the disparate origins of the text. These three contexts mention the legendary Daoist ''xian'' immortals Chi Song ( " Red Pine", and Wang Qiao (, or Zi Qiao ). In later Daoist hagiography, Chi Song was Lord of Rain under Shennong, the legendary inventor of agriculture; and Wang Qiao was a son of King Ling of Zhou (r. 571–545 BCE), who flew away on a giant white bird, became an immortal and was never again seen.


''Yuan You''

The "'' Yuan You''" ( "Far-off Journey") poem describes a spiritual journey into the realms of gods and immortals, frequently referring to Daoist myths and techniques.
My spirit darted forth and did not return to me,
And my body, left tenantless, grew withered and lifeless.
Then I looked into myself to strengthen my resolution,
And sought to learn from where the primal spirit issues.
In emptiness and silence I found serenity;
In tranquil inaction I gained true satisfaction.
I heard how once Red Pine had washed the world's dust off:
I would model myself on the pattern he had left me.
I honoured the wondrous powers of the [] Pure Ones,
And those of past ages who had become [] Immortals.
They departed in the flux of change and vanished from men's sight,
Leaving a famous name that endures after them.


''Xi shi''

The "''
Xi shi Xi Shi (Hsi Shih; , ) was, according to legends, one of the renowned Four Beauties of ancient China. She was said to have lived during the end of the Spring and Autumn period in Zhuji, the capital of the ancient State of Yue. In traditiona ...
''" ( "Sorrow for Troth Betrayed") resembles the "''Yuan You''", and both reflect Daoist ideas from the Han period. "Though unoriginal in theme," says Hawkes, "its description of air travel, written in a pre-aeroplane age, is exhilarating and rather impressive."
We gazed down of the Middle Land hinawith its myriad people
As we rested on the whirlwind, drifting about at random.
In this way we came at last to the moor of Shao-yuan:
There, with the other blessed ones, were Red Pine and Wang Qiao.
The two Masters held zithers tuned in perfect concord:
I sang the Qing Shang air to their playing.
In tranquil calm and quiet enjoyment,
Gently I floated, inhaling all the essences.
But then I thought that this immortal life of [] the blessed,
Was not worth the sacrifice of my home-returning.


''Ai shi ming''

The "''Ai shi ming''" ( "Alas That My Lot Was Not Cast") describes a celestial journey similar to the previous two.
Far and forlorn, with no hope of return:
Sadly I gaze in the distance, over the empty plain.
Below, I fish in the valley streamlet;
Above, I seek out [] holy hermits.
I enter into friendship with Red Pine;
I join Wang Qiao as his companion. We send the Xiao Yang in front to guide us;
The White Tiger runs back and forth in attendance.
Floating on the cloud and mist, we enter the dim height of heaven;
Riding on the white deer we sport and take our pleasure.


''Li Sao''

The "''
Li Sao "''Li Sao''" (; translation: "Encountering Sorrow") is an ancient Chinese poem from the anthology ''Chuci'' traditionally attributed to Qu Yuan. ''Li Sao'' dates from the late 3rd century BCE, during the Chinese Warring States period. Backgro ...
''" ( "On Encountering Trouble"), the most famous ''Chuci'' poem, is usually interpreted as describing ecstatic flights and trance techniques of Chinese shamans. The above three poems are variations describing Daoist ''xian''. Some other ''Chuci'' poems refer to immortals with synonyms of ''xian''. For instance, "''Shou zhi''" ( "Maintaining Resolution), uses '' zhenren'' ( "true person", tr. "Pure Ones" above in "''Yuan You''"), which Wang Yi's commentary glosses as ''zhen xianren'' ( "true immortal person").
I visited Fu Yue, bestriding a dragon,
Joined in marriage with the Weaving Maiden,
Lifted up Heaven's Net to capture evil,
Drew the Bow of Heaven to shoot at wickedness,
Followed the ��人Immortals fluttering through the sky,
Ate of the Primal Essence to prolong my life.


''Liezi''

The '' Liezi'' ( " ook ofMaster Lie"), which Louis Komjathy says "was probably compiled in the 3rd century CE (while containing earlier textual layers)", uses ''xian'' four times, always in the compound ''xiansheng'' ( "immortal sage"). Nearly half of Chapter 2 ("The
Yellow Emperor The Yellow Emperor, also known as the Yellow Thearch or by his Chinese name Huangdi (), is a deity ('' shen'') in Chinese religion, one of the legendary Chinese sovereigns and culture heroes included among the mytho-historical Three Soverei ...
") comes from the ''Zhuangzi'', including this recounting of the above fable about Mount Gushe (, or Guye, or Miao Gushe ).
The Ku-ye mountains stand on a chain of islands where the Yellow River enters the sea. Upon the mountains there lives a Divine Man, who inhales the wind and drinks the dew, and does not eat the five grains. His mind is like a bottomless spring, his body is like a virgin's. He knows neither intimacy nor love, yet [] immortals and sages serve him as ministers. He inspires no awe, he is never angry, yet the eager and diligent act as his messengers. He is without kindness and bounty, but others have enough by themselves; he does not store and save, but he himself never lacks. The Yin and Yang are always in tune, the sun and moon always shine, the four seasons are always regular, wind and rain are always temperate, breeding is always timely, the harvest is always rich, and there are no plagues to ravage the land, no early deaths to afflict men, animals have no diseases, and ghosts have no uncanny echoes.
Chapter 5 uses ''xiansheng'' three times in a conversation set between legendary rulers
Tang Tang or TANG most often refers to: * Tang dynasty * Tang (drink mix) Tang or TANG may also refer to: Chinese states and dynasties * Jin (Chinese state) (11th century – 376 BC), a state during the Spring and Autumn period, called Tang (唐) ...
() of the
Shang Dynasty The Shang dynasty (), also known as the Yin dynasty (), was a Chinese royal dynasty founded by Tang of Shang (Cheng Tang) that ruled in the Yellow River valley in the second millennium BC, traditionally succeeding the Xia dynasty a ...
and Ji () of the Xia Dynasty.
T'ang asked again: 'Are there large things and small, long and short, similar and different?'
—'To the East of the Gulf of Chih-li, who knows how many thousands and millions of miles, there is a deep ravine, a valley truly without bottom; and its bottomless underneath is named "The Entry to the Void". The waters of the eight corners and the nine regions, the stream of the Milky Way, all pour into it, but it neither shrinks nor grows. Within it there are five mountains, called Tai-yü, Yüan-chiao, Fang-hu, Ying-chou and P'eng-Iai. These mountains are thirty thousand miles high, and as many miles round; the tablelands on their summits extend for nine thousand miles. It is seventy thousand miles from one mountain to the next, but they are considered close neighbours. The towers and terraces upon them are all gold and jade, the beasts and birds are all unsullied white; trees of pearl and garnet always grow densely, flowering and bearing fruit which is always luscious, and those who eat of it never grow old and die. The men who dwell there are all of the race of [] immortal sages, who fly, too many to be counted, to and from one mountain to another in a day and a night. Yet the bases of the five mountains used to rest on nothing; they were always rising and falling, going and returning, with the ebb and flow of the tide, and never for a moment stood firm. The [] immortals found this troublesome, and complained about it to God. God was afraid that they would drift to the far West and he would lose the home of his sages. So he commanded Yü-ch'iang to make fifteen [] giant turtles carry the five mountains on their lifted heads, taking turns in three watches, each sixty thousand years long; and for the first time the mountains stood firm and did not move.
'But there was a giant from the kingdom of the Dragon Earl, who came to the place of the five mountains in no more than a few strides. In one throw he hooked six of the turtles in a bunch, hurried back to his country carrying them together on his back, and scorched their bones to tell fortunes by the cracks. Thereupon two of the mountains, Tai-yü and Yüan-chiao, drifted to the far North and sank in the great sea; the [] immortals who were carried away numbered many millions. God was very angry, and reduced by degrees the size of the Dragon Earl's kingdom and the height of his subjects. At the time of Fu-hsi and Shen-nung, the people of this country were still several hundred feet high.'
Penglai Mountain became the most famous of these five mythical peaks where the
elixir of life The elixir of life, also known as elixir of immortality, is a potion that supposedly grants the drinker eternal life and/or eternal youth. This elixir was also said to cure all diseases. Alchemists in various ages and cultures sought the mean ...
supposedly grew, and is known as
Horai Penglai () is a legendary land of Chinese mythology. It is known in Japanese mythology as Hōrai. McCullough, Helen. ''Classical Japanese Prose'', p. 570. Stanford Univ. Press, 1990. . Location According to the ''Classic of Mountains and Seas ...
in Japanese legends. The first emperor
Qin Shi Huang Qin Shi Huang (, ; 259–210 BC) was the founder of the Qin dynasty and the first emperor of a unified China. Rather than maintain the title of " king" ( ''wáng'') borne by the previous Shang and Zhou rulers, he ruled as the First Empero ...
sent his court alchemist Xu Fu on expeditions to find these plants of immortality, but he never returned (although by some accounts, he discovered Japan). Holmes Welch analyzed the beginnings of Daoism, sometime around the 4th-3rd centuries BCE, from four separate streams: philosophical Daoism (Laozi, Zhuangzi, Liezi), a "hygiene school" that cultivated longevity through breathing exercises and yoga, Chinese alchemy and Five Elements philosophy, and those who sought Penglai and elixirs of "immortality". This is what he concludes about ''xian''.
It is my own opinion, therefore, that though the word ''hsien'', or Immortal, is used by Chuang Tzu and Lieh Tzu, and though they attributed to their idealized individual the magic powers that were attributed to the ''hsien'' in later times, nonetheless the ''hsien'' ideal was something they did not believe in—either that it was possible or that it was good. The magic powers are allegories and hyperboles for the ''natural'' powers that come from identification with Tao. Spiritualized Man, P'eng-lai, and the rest are features of a ''genre'' which is meant to entertain, disturb, and exalt us, not to be taken as literal hagiography. Then and later, the philosophical Taoists were distinguished from all other schools of Taoism by their rejection of the pursuit of immortality. As we shall see, their books came to be adopted as scriptural authority by those who did practice magic and seek to become immortal. But it was their misunderstanding of philosophical Taoism that was the reason they adopted it.


''Shenxian zhuan''

The '' Shenxian zhuan'' ( Biographies of Spirit Immortals") is a hagiography of ''xian''. Although it was traditionally attributed to Ge Hong (283–343 CE), Komjathy says, "The received versions of the text contain some 100-odd hagiographies, most of which date from 6th-8th centuries at the earliest." According to the ''Shenxian zhuan'', there are four schools of immortality: '' '' (—"energy"): Breath control and meditation. Those who belong to this school can
"...blow on water and it will flow against its own current for several paces; blow on fire, and it will be extinguished; blow at tigers or wolves, and they will crouch down and not be able to move; blow at serpents, and they will coil up and be unable to flee. If someone is wounded by a weapon, blow on the wound, and the bleeding will stop. If you hear of someone who has suffered a poisonous insect bite, even if you are not in his presence, you can, from a distance, blow and say in incantation over your own hand (males on the left hand, females on the right), and the person will at once be healed even if more than a hundred li away. And if you yourself are struck by a sudden illness, you have merely to swallow pneumas in three series of nine, and you will immediately recover.
But the most essential thing mong such artsis fetal breathing. Those who obtain he technique offetal breathing become able to breathe without using their nose or mouth, as if in the womb, and this is the culmination of the way f pneumatic cultivation"
''Fàn'' (—"Diet"): Ingestion of herbal compounds and abstention from the ''Sān Shī Fàn'' (—"Three-Corpses food")—Meats (raw fish, pork, dog, leeks, and scallions) and
grain A grain is a small, hard, dry fruit ( caryopsis) – with or without an attached hull layer – harvested for human or animal consumption. A grain crop is a grain-producing plant. The two main types of commercial grain crops are cereals and legum ...
s. The ''Shenxian zhuan'' uses this story to illustrate the importance of '' bigu'' "grain avoidance":
"During the reign of Emperor Cheng of the Han, hunters in the Zhongnan Mountains saw a person who wore no clothes, his body covered with black hair. Upon seeing this person, the hunters wanted to pursue and capture him, but the person leapt over gullies and valleys as if in flight, and so could not be overtaken. Qin_Ziying_of_Qin.html" ;"title="Qin_(state).html" ;"title="ut after being surrounded and captured, it was discovered this person was a 200 plus year old woman, who had once been a concubine of Qin (state)">Qin Ziying of Qin">Emperor Ziying. When he had surrendered to the 'invaders of the east', she fled into the mountains where she learned to subside on 'the resin and nuts of pines' from an old man. Afterwards, this diet 'enabled [her] to feel neither hunger nor thirst; in winter [she] was not cold, in summer [she] was not hot.']
The hunters took the woman back in. They offered her grain to eat. When she first smelled the stink of grain, she vomited, and only after several days could she tolerate it. After little more than two years of this iet her body hair fell out; she turned old and died. Had she not been caught by men, she would have become a transcendent."
''Fángzhōng Zhī Shù'' (—"Arts of the Bedchamber"): Sexual yoga. According to a discourse between the
Yellow Emperor The Yellow Emperor, also known as the Yellow Thearch or by his Chinese name Huangdi (), is a deity ('' shen'') in Chinese religion, one of the legendary Chinese sovereigns and culture heroes included among the mytho-historical Three Soverei ...
and the immortaless ''Sùnǚ'' (—"Plain Girl"), one of the three daughters of Hsi Wang Mu,
"The sexual behaviors between a man and woman are identical to how the universe itself came into creation. Like Heaven and Earth, the male and female share a parallel relationship in attaining an immortal existence. They both must learn how to engage and develop their natural sexual instincts and behaviors; otherwise the only result is decay and traumatic discord of their physical lives. However, if they engage in the utmost joys of sensuality and apply the principles of yin and yang to their sexual activity, their health, vigor, and joy of love will bear them the fruits of longevity and immortality.
The ''White Tigress (Zhuang Li Quan Pure Angelic Metal Ajna Empress "Toppest") Manual'', a treatise on female sexual yoga, states,
"A female can completely restore her youthfulness and attain immortality if she refrains from allowing just one or two men in her life from stealing and destroying her exualessence, which will only serve in aging her at a rapid rate and bring about an early death. However, if she can acquire the sexual essence of a thousand males through absorption, she will acquire the great benefits of youthfulness and immortality."
''Dān'' (丹—"
Alchemy Alchemy (from Arabic: ''al-kīmiyā''; from Ancient Greek: χυμεία, ''khumeía'') is an ancient branch of natural philosophy, a philosophical and protoscientific tradition that was historically practiced in China, India, the Muslim wo ...
", literally " Cinnabar"): Elixir of Immortality.


''Baopuzi''

The 4th century CE ''
Baopuzi The ''Baopuzi'' () is a literary work written by Ge Hong (also transliterated as Ko Hung) (), 283–343, a scholar during the turbulent Jin dynasty. ''Baopuzi'' is divided into two main sections, the esoteric ''Neipian'' () "Inner Chapters" and ...
'' ( " ook ofMaster Embracing Simplicity"), which was written by Ge Hong, gives some highly detailed descriptions of ''xian''. The text lists three classes of immortals: *''Tiānxiān'' (—"Celestial Immortal"): The highest level. *''Dìxiān'' (—"Earth Immortal"): The middle level. *'' Shījiě xiān'' (—"Escaped-by-means-of-a-stimulated-corpse-simulacrum Immortal", literally " Corpse Untie Immortal"): The lowest level. This is considered the lowest form of immortality since a person must first "fake" their own death by substituting a bewitched object like a bamboo pole, sword, talisman or a shoe for their corpse or slipping a type of Death certificate into the coffin of a newly departed paternal grandfather, thus having their name and "allotted life span" deleted from the ledgers kept by the '' Sīmìng'' (—"Director of allotted life spans", literally "Controller of Fate"). Hagiographies and folktales abound of people who seemingly die in one province, but are seen alive in another. Mortals who choose this route must cut off all ties with family and friends, move to a distant province, and enact the ''Ling bao tai xuan yin sheng zhi fu'' (—"Numinous Treasure Talisman of the Grand Mystery for Living in Hiding") to protect themselves from heavenly retribution. However, this is not a true form of immortality. For each misdeed a person commits, the Director of allotted life spans subtracts days and sometimes years from their allotted life span. This method allows a person to live out the entirety of their allotted lifespan (whether it be 30, 80, 400, etc.) and avoid the agents of death. But the body still has to be transformed into an immortal one, hence the phrase ''Xiānsǐ hòutuō'' (—"The 'death' is apparent, utthe sloughing off of the body's mortality remains to be done."). Sometimes the ''Shījiě'' are employed by heaven to act as celestial peace keepers. Therefore, they have no need for hiding from retribution since they are empowered by heaven to perform their duties. There are three levels of heavenly ''Shījiě'': **''Dìxià zhǔ'' (—"Agents Beneath the Earth"): Are in charge of keeping the peace within the Chinese underworld. They are eligible for promotion to earthbound immortality after 280 years of faithful service. **''Dìshàng zhǔzhě'' (—"Agents Above the Earth"): Are given magic talismans which prolong their lives (but not indefinitely) and allow them to heal the sick and exorcize demons and evil spirits from the earth. This level was ''not'' eligible for promotion to earthbound immortality. **''Zhìdì jūn'' (—"Lords Who Control the Earth"): A heavenly decree ordered them to "disperse all subordinate junior demons, whether high or low n rank that have cause afflictions and injury owing to blows or offenses against the Motion of the Year, the Original Destiny, Great Year, the Kings of the Soil or the establishing or breaking influences of the chronograms of the tome. Annihilate them all." This level was also ''not'' eligible for promotion to immortality. These titles were usually given to humans who had either not proven themselves worthy of or were not fated to become immortals. One such famous agent was Fei Changfang, who was eventually murdered by evil spirits because he lost his book of magic talismans. However, some immortals are written to have used this method in order to escape execution. Ge Hong wrote in his book ''The Master Who Embraces Simplicity'',
The mmortalsDark Girl and Plain Girl compared sexual activity as the intermingling of fire ang/maleand water in/female claiming that water and fire can kill people but can also regenerate their life, depending on whether or not they know the correct methods of sexual activity according to their nature. These arts are based on the theory that the more females a man copulates with, the greater benefit he will derive from the act. Men who are ignorant of this art, copulating with only one or two females during their life, will only suffice to bring about their untimely and early death.


''Zhong Lü Chuan Dao Ji''

The ''Zhong Lü Chuan Dao Ji'' ( "Anthology of the Transmission of the Dao from Zhong i Quanto Lü ongbin) is associated with
Zhongli Quan Zhongli Quan, courtesy name Jidao, is a Chinese mythological figure and one of the Eight Immortals in the Taoist pantheon. He is also known as Han Zhongli because he was said to have been born in the Han dynasty. In legend, he wields a large ...
(2nd century CE?) and
Lü Dongbin Lü Dongbin (796 CE – 1016 CE) is a legendary Chinese scholar and poet said to have lived during the Tang Dynasty. Whether he actually lived the two hundred and twenty years cannot be determined. Elevated to the status of an immortal in the ...
(9th century CE), two of the legendary Eight Immortals. It is part of the so-called "Zhong-Lü" () textual tradition of internal alchemy (''neidan''). Komjathy describes it as, "Probably dating from the late Tang (618–906), the text is in question-and-answer format, containing a dialogue between Lü and his teacher Zhongli on aspects of alchemical terminology and methods." The ''Zhong Lü Chuan Dao Ji'' lists five classes of immortals: *''Guǐxiān'' (—"Ghost Immortal"): A person who cultivates too much yin energy. These immortals are likened to Vampires because they drain the life essence of the living, much like the fox spirit. Ghost immortals do not leave the realm of ghosts. *''Rénxiān'' (—Human Immortal"): Humans have an equal balance of yin and yang energies, so they have the potential of becoming either a ghost or immortal. Although they continue to hunger and thirst and require clothing and shelter like a normal human, these immortals do not suffer from aging or sickness. Human immortals do not leave the realm of humans. There are many sub-classes of human immortals, as discussed above under '' Shījiě xiān''. *''Dìxiān'' (—"Earth Immortal"): When the yin is transformed into the pure yang, a true immortal body will emerge that does not need food, drink, clothing or shelter and is not affected by hot or cold temperatures. Earth immortals do not leave the realm of earth. These immortals are forced to stay on earth until they shed their human form. *''Shénxiān'' (—"Spirit Immortal"): The immortal body of the earthbound class will eventually change into vapor through further practice. They have supernatural powers and can take on the shape of any object. These immortals must remain on earth acquiring merit by teaching mankind about the Tao. Spirit immortals do not leave the realm of spirits. Once enough merit is accumulated, they are called to heaven by a celestial decree. *''Tiānxiān'' (—"Celestial Immortal"): Spirit immortals who are summoned to heaven are given the minor office of water realm judge. Over time, they are promoted to oversee the earth realm and finally become administrators of the celestial realm. These immortals have the power to travel back and forth between the earthly and celestial realms.


''Śūraṅgama Sūtra''

The ''
Śūraṅgama Sūtra The ''Śūraṅgama Sūtra'' (Sanskrit: शूरङ्गम सूत्र; ) (Taisho 945) is a Mahayana Buddhist sutra that has been especially influential in Chan Buddhism. The general doctrinal outlook of the ''Śūraṅgama Sūtra'' is ...
'', a mahayana Buddhist manuscript, in an approach to Taoist teachings, discusses the characteristics of ten types of ''xian'' who exist between the world of
devas Devas may refer to: * Devas Club, a club in south London * Anthony Devas (1911–1958), British portrait painter * Charles Stanton Devas (1848–1906), political economist * Jocelyn Devas (died 1886), founder of the Devas Club * Devas (band), ...
("gods") and that of human beings. This position, in
Buddhist Buddhism ( , ), also known as Buddha Dharma and Dharmavinaya (), is an Indian religion or philosophical tradition based on teachings attributed to the Buddha. It originated in northern India as a -movement in the 5th century BCE, and ...
literature, is usually occupied by
asura Asuras (Sanskrit: असुर) are a class of beings in Indic religions. They are described as power-seeking clans related to the more benevolent Devas (also known as Suras) in Hinduism. In its Buddhist context, the word is sometimes translated ...
s ("
Titan Titan most often refers to: * Titan (moon), the largest moon of Saturn * Titans, a race of deities in Greek mythology Titan or Titans may also refer to: Arts and entertainment Fictional entities Fictional locations * Titan in fiction, fictiona ...
s", "antigods"), but these beings are of another type. These ''xian'' are not considered true cultivators of ''
samadhi ''Samadhi'' ( Pali and sa, समाधि), in Buddhism, Hinduism, Jainism, Sikhism and yogic schools, is a state of meditative consciousness. In Buddhism, it is the last of the eight elements of the Noble Eightfold Path. In the Ashtanga Yo ...
'' ("unification of mind"), as their methods differ from the practice of '' dhyāna'' ("meditation"). *''Dìxiān'' (, "earth-travelling immortals") – ''Xian'' who constantly ingest special food called ''fuer'' (). *''Fēixiān'' (, "flying immortals") – ''Xian'' who constantly ingest certain herbs and plants. *''Yóuxiān'' (, "roaming immortals") – ''Xian'' who "transform" by constantly ingesting metals and minerals. *''Kōngxiān'' (, "void-travelling immortals") – ''Xian'' who perfect their '' qi'' and essence through unceasing movement and stillness (''dongzhi'' ). *''Tiānxiān'' (, "heaven-travelling immortals") – ''Xian'' who constantly practice control of their fluids and saliva. *''Tōngxiān'' (, "all-penetrating immortals") – ''Xian'' who constantly practice the inhalation of unadulterated essences. *''Dàoxiān'' (, "immortals of the Way") – ''Xian'' who achieve transcendence through unceasing recitation of spells and prohibitions. *''Zhàoxiān'' (, "illuminated immortals") – ''Xian'' who achieve transcendence through constant periods of thought and recollection. *''Jīngxiān'' (, "seminal immortals") – ''Xian'' who have mastered the stimuli and responses of intercourse. *''Juéxiān'' (, "absolute immortals") – ''Xian'' who "have attained the end" and perfected their awakening through constant transformation.


In art and culture

According to Michael Loewe, the earliest artistic and textual evidence of ''xian'' transcendents dates from the fifth or fourth centuries BCE. They were depicted as avian and serpentine hybrids who could fly through the universe, typically either combinations of a bird's body and a human face, or a human with wings sprouting on their back, i.e., a ''yuren'' (羽人, "feathered person"). In tomb reliefs from the Eastern Han dynasty (25-220 CE), ''xian'' are often bird-human and reptile-human hybrids, depicted as "liminal but spiritually empowered figures" who accompanied a deceased person's soul to paradise, "transient figures moving through an intermediate realm" where they are often joined by deer, tigers, dragons, birds, heavenly horses (''
tianma Tianma ( ', "heavenly horse") was a winged flying horse in Chinese folklore. It was sometimes depicted with chimerical features such as dragon scales and was at times attributed the ability to sweat blood, possibly inspired by the parasite '' Pa ...
'' 天馬), and other animals. These avian, serpentine, and human hybrid ''xian''s are frequently depicted with "secondary characteristics" including androgyny, large ears, long hair, exaggerated nonhuman faces, tattoo-like markings, and nudity; many of these traits also appear in depictions of foreigners, who also lived outside the Chinese cultural and spiritual sphere. In Japan, ''sennin'' image was perpetuated in many legends, art, miniature sculpture ( netsuke). Below is a wooden netsuke, made in the 18th century. It represents a perplexed old man with one hand based on the curve of a snag, and the other hand is rubbing his head with concern. He is looking somewhere in the sky and tucked up the right leg. This position betrayed him as Sennin Tekkay, whose soul has found the second life in the body of the lame beggar. In shape the beggarly old man this legendary personality portrayed prominent carver of the early period Jobun. ''Sennin'' is a common Japanese character name. For example, ''Ikkaku Sennin'' (一角仙人 "One-horned Immortal") was a Noh play by Komparu Zenpō (金春禅鳳, 1454–1520?). The Japanese legend of Gama Sennin (蝦蟇仙人 "Toad Immortal") is based upon Chinese Liu Hai, a fabled 10th-century alchemist who learned the secret of immortality from the Chan Chu ("Three-legged Money Toad").


See also

*
Shen (Chinese religion) ''Shen'' (神) is the Chinese word for "deity", "spirit", heart, inclusive and community mind, or future mind. The Japanese equivalent is '' shin''. This single Chinese term expresses a range of similar, yet differing, meanings. The first meani ...
* Zhenren * Eight Immortals *
Eight Immortals from Sichuan Eight Immortals from Sichuan ({{zh, c=蜀中八仙, p=Shǔ zhōng bāxiān) are eight Sichuanese who supposedly became '' xian'' ("immortals; transcendents; fairies"). The term is first used by Qiao Xiu (譙秀 qiáo xiù) in ''Record of Shu' ...
* Fu Lu Shou * Old Man of the South Pole * Magu *
Xi Wangmu The Queen Mother of the West, known by #Names, various local names, is a mother goddess in Chinese folk religion, Chinese religion and Chinese mythology, mythology, also worshipped in neighbouring Asian countries, and attested from ancient time ...
(Queen Mother of the West) * Temples of the Five Immortals in China: ** In Shiyan, (
Hubei Hubei (; ; alternately Hupeh) is a landlocked province of the People's Republic of China, and is part of the Central China region. The name of the province means "north of the lake", referring to its position north of Dongting Lake. The p ...
) ** In Guangzhou * Kunlun Mountain in mythology *
Peaches of Immortality In Chinese mythology, Peaches of Immortality ( or ) are consumed by the immortals due to their mystic virtue of conferring longevity on all who eat them. Peaches symbolizing immortality (or the wish for a long and healthy life) are a common symbo ...
* Xianxia (genre) * Sansin * Yama-no-Kami *
Rishi ''Rishi'' () is a term for an accomplished and enlightened person. They find mentions in various Vedic texts. Rishis are believed to have composed hymns of the Vedas. The Post-Vedic tradition of Hinduism regards the rishis as "great yogis" o ...
* Weizza


References

*Akahori, Akira. 1989. "Drug Taking and Immortality", in ''Taoist Meditation and Longevity Techniques'', ed. Livia Kohn. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan, pp. 73–98. . *Blofeld, John. 1978. ''Taoism: The Road to Immortality''. Boston: Shambhala. . * *DeWoskin, Kenneth. 1990. "''Xian'' Descended: Narrating ''Xian'' among Mortals." ''Taoist Resources'' 1.2:21–27. * * * *Loewe, Michael. 1978. "Man and Beast: The Hybrid in Early Chinese Art and Literature", ''
Numen Numen (plural numina) is a Latin term for " divinity", "divine presence", or "divine will." The Latin authors defined it as follows:For a more extensive account, refer to Cicero writes of a "divine mind" (''divina mens''), a god "whose numen ev ...
'' 25.2, pp. 97-117. *Robinet, Isabel. 1986
"The Taoist Immortal: Jesters of Light and Shadow, Heaven and Earth"
''Journal of Chinese Religions'' 13/14:87–106. *Wallace, Leslie V. 2001. "BETWIXT AND BETWEEN: Depictions of Immortals (''Xian'') in Eastern Han Tomb Reliefs", ''
Ars Orientalis The Freer Gallery of Art is an art museum of the Smithsonian Institution in Washington, D.C. focusing on Culture of Asia, Asian art. The Freer and the Arthur M. Sackler Gallery together form the National Museum of Asian Art in the United States. T ...
'' 41: 73-101. * * *Wong, Eva. 2000. ''The Tao of Health, Longevity, and Immortality: The Teachings of Immortals Chung and Lü.'' Boston: Shambhala. Footnotes


External links


"Transcendence and Immortality"
Russell Kirkland, The Encyclopedia of Taoism

Gregory Smits, Topics in Premodern Chinese History
Xian
Encyclopedia of Religion {{Authority control Chinese mythology Life extension Mythological powers Taoist philosophy