Zhongshan () was a small
state
State may refer to:
Arts, entertainment, and media Literature
* ''State Magazine'', a monthly magazine published by the U.S. Department of State
* ''The State'' (newspaper), a daily newspaper in Columbia, South Carolina, United States
* ''Our S ...
that existed during the
Warring States period
The Warring States period () was an era in History of China#Ancient China, ancient Chinese history characterized by warfare, as well as bureaucratic and military reforms and consolidation. It followed the Spring and Autumn period and concluded ...
, which managed to survive for almost 120 years despite its small size. Its origins of its founder are a matter of contention between scholars.
Origins
The origin of the Zhongshan state is disputed; some sources, such as the ''
Records of the Grand Historian
''Records of the Grand Historian'', also known by its Chinese name ''Shiji'', is a monumental history of China that is the first of China's 24 dynastic histories. The ''Records'' was written in the early 1st century by the ancient Chinese his ...
'', label the state as being founded and ruled by
Beidi
The Di or Beidi (Northern Di) were various ethnic groups who lived north of the Chinese (''Huaxia'') realms during the Zhou dynasty. Although initially described as nomadic, they seem to have practiced a mixed pastoral, agricultural, and huntin ...
(白狄), while others only list them as not being Zhou or Han. Zhongshan occupies roughly the same place as the earlier Xianyu state. The two countries, being Zhongshan and Xianyu, have a muddled history, as the term Zhongshan begins somewhat before the term Xianyu ends. Zhongshan, meaning central mountains, is first mentioned in 506BC, by a
Jin minister, as a hostile neighboring state. The last mention of the Xianyu, meanwhile, is in 489BC, when Zhao Yang, a Jin minister, leads a military campaign against them.
There are three reasons Zhongshan is often considered a continuation of Xianyu: Both had similar relationships with
Qi and Jin, the two states were located in almost exactly the same place, and there is no historical record of Xianyu being conquered. It is considered possible that the name change marks a transition from a loosely-controlled confederation of Di tribes, to a more centralized state. One challenge to this theory of continuation is that after Zhongshan was conquered in 407-406, by the state of
Wei
Wei or WEI may refer to:
States
* Wey (state) (衛, 1040–209 BC), Wei in pinyin, but spelled Wey to distinguish from the bigger Wei of the Warring States
* Wei (state) (魏, 403–225 BC), one of the seven major states of the Warring States per ...
,
Marquess Wen of Wei
Marquess Wen of Wei (Wèi Wén Hóu; died 396 BCE) was the first Marquess to rule the State of Wei during the Warring States period of Chinese history (475 – 220 BCE). Born Wei Si (魏斯), he belonged to the House of Wei, one of the noble h ...
gave the land to his eldest son Ji, and the state was based upon this. However this theory is contradicted by a line of the ''Shiji'', in which it states that the new state of Zhongshan came some time after this. Some theories postulate that this new state was a continuation of the earlier Xianyu, and others saying the ruling family of the new Zhongshan came from a line of the
Zhou. Because of this, there is no definitive answer as to the ethnicity of Zhongshan, or even to the ethnicity of the royal family; however, it is known that the country's population was mixed.
History
The first major event of Zhongshan was the capital being placed at
Gu, in 414BC, during the reign of Duke Wu, traditionally considered the founding of the country itself. Soon after this, in 407, Zhongshan was conquered by
Wei
Wei or WEI may refer to:
States
* Wey (state) (衛, 1040–209 BC), Wei in pinyin, but spelled Wey to distinguish from the bigger Wei of the Warring States
* Wei (state) (魏, 403–225 BC), one of the seven major states of the Warring States per ...
troops, led by general Yue Yang. It is said that Yue Yang's son was living in Zhongshan when war was declared, and was taken hostage. He was paraded before Yue Yang in order to weaken morale, but when this failed, they killed his son and made him into stew, before sending part of said stew to Yue Yang, which he drank in front of the Zhongshan messenger to show resolve. Shortly after, in 381, Zhongshan won its independence back.
Zhongshan invaded Yan in 315, after Yan's king, Zi Kuai, abdicated his throne to his chancellor, Zi Zhi. Qi and Zhongshan both separately invaded Yan. Zhongshan seized copper mines in this war, which had previously belonged to the
Donghu, but which had been taken by Yan in war. Zhongshan's troops were led by Sima Zhou.
In 306, after the state of Zhao, under
King Wuling of Zhao
King Wuling of Zhao () (died 295 BCE, reigned 325 BCE – 299 BCE) reigned in the State of Zhao during the Warring States period of Chinese history. His reign was famous for one important event: the reforms consisting of "Wearing the Hu (styled) A ...
, finished a military reform, adopting the uniforms and tactics of the Hu nomads, they invaded Zhongshan. After ten years of war Zhao annexed them in 296.
Foreign relations
Zhongshan was unusual in that despite being such a small nation, it managed to survive for a long time, considering that many countries, large and small, of the
Warring States period
The Warring States period () was an era in History of China#Ancient China, ancient Chinese history characterized by warfare, as well as bureaucratic and military reforms and consolidation. It followed the Spring and Autumn period and concluded ...
lived very short lifespans.
Guo Songtao
Guo Songtao ( zh, 郭嵩燾, s=郭嵩焘, p=Guō Sōngtāo, w=Kuo Sung-t’ao; 11 April 1818 – 18 July 1891) was a Chinese diplomat and statesman during the Qing dynasty. He was among the first foreign emissaries to be sent abroad by the Qin ...
credits this to shrewd diplomacy, saying: "In the rises and falls of the Warring States, Zhongshan seems to be the unnoticed hub and lynchpin." Despite their small size, they demonstrated impressive resilience and strength; they are the only small nation to be given their own chapter in the ''
Strategies of the Warring States
The ''Zhan Guo Ce'', ( W-G: Chan-kuo T'se) also known in English as the ''Strategies of the Warring States'' or ''Annals of the Warring States'', is an ancient Chinese text that contains anecdotes of political manipulation and warfare during the ...
''.
In 323BC, Zhongshan formed a
vertical alliance, allying itself with
Wei
Wei or WEI may refer to:
States
* Wey (state) (衛, 1040–209 BC), Wei in pinyin, but spelled Wey to distinguish from the bigger Wei of the Warring States
* Wei (state) (魏, 403–225 BC), one of the seven major states of the Warring States per ...
,
Han,
Zhao Zhao may refer to:
* Zhao (surname) (赵), a Chinese surname
** commonly spelled Chao in Taiwan or up until the early 20th century in other regions
** Chiu, from the Cantonese pronunciation
** Cho (Korean surname), represent the Hanja 趙 (Chine ...
, and
Yan, in order to defend themselves against larger states like
Qin,
Qi, and
''Chu''. This alliance allowed the states in it to claim the title of ''
wang
Wang may refer to:
Names
* Wang (surname) (王), a common Chinese surname
* Wāng (汪), a less common Chinese surname
* Titles in Chinese nobility
* A title in Korean nobility
* A title in Mongolian nobility
Places
* Wang River in Thaila ...
'' (a title roughly equivalent to King).
King Wei of Qi, who had 11 years earlier taken the title of ''wang'' for himself, objected to this, saying: "I am ashamed to be a king
if the ruler of Zhongshan can be one too". He later went on to say: "I am a state of ten thousand chariots and Zhongshan is one of a thousand chariots, how dare she
hongshan
Hongshan may refer to:
Places in China Districts
*Hongshan District, Chifeng () in Chifeng, Inner Mongolia
*Hongshan District, Wuhan () in Wuhan, Hubei
Subdistricts
* Hongshan Subdistrict, Changsha (), in Kaifu District, Changsha, Hunan
* Hong ...
assume a title the equal of mine?". An important part of this statement can be seen in his reason for denouncing them claiming kingship is not that they were non-Chinese (''Huaxi''), which would very likely have been mentioned in the insult if it were true. The fact that Zhongshan was invited to the five state alliance is seen as another proof of them being Chinese, as a barbarian (''Yi'') country would never be invited to such an alliance. After this, King Wei of Qi asked Wei and Zhao to join him in attacking Zhongshan, to force them to abolish their title of ''wang'', however, King Cuo sent an advisor,
Zhang Deng, to these states, and successfully sowed discord and distrust amongst them, and no such alliance was formed.
Zhao
The state of Zhao surrounded Zhongshan almost entirely, with only Zhongshan's northeastern border being outside of ''Zhao''. For this reason, they were considered to be a "disease in the heart and belly" by the Zhao kings. From 307 BC on, Zhao attacked Zhongshan almost every year, until, in 301, the king of Zhongshan was forced to take refuge in Qi. During this time Qi declared war on and invaded Chu; seeing that Qi was occupied with a war of their own, Zhao pushed deep into Zhongshan, and fully conquered them.
Economy
Due to commonality of finds of iron agricultural tools in the southern part of Zhongshan, compared to the commonality of animal skeletons in the northern part, it is believed that the southern land's economy was mostly
agriculture
Agriculture or farming is the practice of cultivating plants and livestock. Agriculture was the key development in the rise of sedentary human civilization, whereby farming of domesticated species created food surpluses that enabled people ...
, and the northern land's was mostly from
animal husbandry
Animal husbandry is the branch of agriculture concerned with animals that are raised for meat, fibre, milk, or other products. It includes day-to-day care, selective breeding, and the raising of livestock. Husbandry has a long history, starti ...
.
Currency
Zhongshan used a currency called ''chengbo'', which took the form of a 15 gram bronze knife shaped coin. It is known that these coins were made in at least Lingshou.
The level of trade, and the relationship, Zhongshan had with other states can be roughly ascertained from the amount of a currency was found in the ruins of Lingshou: the ''yan'' knife coins from Yan were plentiful, with some 374 being found, whereas the ''gandan'', ''baihua'', and ''lin'' coins of Zhao are rare, with only 100 of them, combined, found. This reflects the hostile relations Zhao had with Zhongshan, and the good relations Yan had with Zhongshan. Indeed, even the similarities of the ''yan'' and ''chengbo'' knife coins seems to suggest their friendly relationship, as they were of similar size and of equal weight, with both weighing fifteen grams, meaning that they would be interchangeable.
Archeology and culture
Much of the knowledge of Zhongshan architecture comes from the remains of their capital city, ''
Lingshou'', and from the tombs of King Cheng, and his son
King Cuo. In the late 1970s, the tombs of both kings were found in
Pingshan County, Hebei, and the capital city was found shortly after, in 1976, only a mile to the east of King Cuo's tomb.
Tombs
The tombs of the two kings, Cheng and Cuo, were the first find of any Zhongshan architecture, and are considered the richest find of any Chinese state of the 4th century BC. They are the largest of any tombs of the Zhongshan to date. Both of their main chambers had been looted, however their storage chambers were still intact, and contained a large number of artifacts. Many of these ritual vessels found in these tombs were from surrounding
warring states
The Warring States period () was an era in ancient Chinese history characterized by warfare, as well as bureaucratic and military reforms and consolidation. It followed the Spring and Autumn period and concluded with the Qin wars of conquest ...
, with a few coming from the northern nomads, but the luxury goods were largely of the Zhongshan style. This split, between archeological evidence supporting the thesis that they were a Chinese people (''Huaxia''), and textual sources claiming them as a non-Chinese people, has caused two fields of thought; one side seeing the Zhongshan as a
sinicized minority, an outside group that has been heavily influenced by Chinese culture, and the other seeing them as a Chinese people that were influenced by non-Chinese, nomadic peoples.
Cities
The capital city, Lingshou contained many ruins, including the foundations of palaces, workshops for bronze and ceramic, marketplaces, and cemeteries. The cemeteries around Lingshou contain some 125 tombs, and dozens more are scattered throughout the country. The city is believed to have been founded in 380, and to have remained the capital until 296, when Zhongshan was conquered. The city is strategically placed, surrounded on its west, north and south sides by the
Taihang Mountains
The Taihang Mountains () are a Chinese mountain range running down the eastern edge of the Loess Plateau in Shanxi, Henan and Hebei provinces. The range extends over from north to south and has an average elevation of . The principal peak is ...
, with its east side facing plains. Like many other capitals of the time, the city was built at the confluence of two rivers. The city was about wide east to west, and wide north to south. Of the cities walls, only the earthen foundation remains, but it is known that they ranged between being and wide. Two gates can be seen, one on the west side and the other on the north side. Four pounded-earth terraces were attached to the walls, some near the gates. A small hill, called Huangshan, is inside the walls, in the north section of the city. The ''Shui Jing Zhu'' says that this hill is what gives the Zhongshan, meaning "central mountain", their name. The hill is believed to have been used as a watchtower. For further fortification, a small city was built to the east. This small city/fort was by . The remains of the pounded earth and buildings of the centre-western part still stand. This city was used to defend the only angle from which to attack Lingshou, which was clearly placed based upon military considerations, rather than economic or political.
Social classes
The official that was in charge of managing the tile-making workers in pottery workshops was called a Sikou. The ''
Zhouli'' describes Sikou to mean an officer in charge of penal codes and convicts, suggesting that Zhongshan's tile production was reliant on, at least in part, convict labor.
Religion
The ideology of Zhongshan was heavily influenced by Confucian ideals, but it is believed that these ideals were used by the King to legitimize his rule, and his foreign policy, rather than being truly believed by the ruling class. This can be seen in their use of Confucian ideology regarding the ruler being heavenly mandated, in order to attack Yan, and seize cities and materials.
A key religious area, Guocun, was located some 4 kilometers southwest of Lingshou, and contained 142 sacrificial pits. These pits were roughly by in area, and between and deep. In each of these pits, an animal, usually sheep, goats, or cattle, was found with its legs tied together, and was buried with a jade item, usually a pendant or
''bi'' disk. These pits, and their contents, are very similar to the sacrificial pits of Jin, where they are believed to have been used ceremonially, to form "oaths of alliances" (''mengshi''). The connection of the two has been seen as evidence of a strong Jin cultural influence upon the elites of Zhongshan.
Language
The characters and style of Zhongshan Chinese is closest to the Chinese of the Qi, but was also influenced by the more southern Chinese states. Their style of calligraphy were very slender and graceful, while also being very taut. It is believed that this style of calligraphy was chosen by King Cuo himself, to emphasize his power.
Military
According to the ''
Lüshi Chunqiu
The ''Lüshi Chunqiu'', also known in English as ''Master Lü's Spring and Autumn Annals'', is an encyclopedic Chinese classic text compiled around 239 BC under the patronage of the Qin Dynasty Chancellor Lü Buwei. In the evaluation of Michae ...
'' the soldiers of Zhongshan wore iron armor, and wielded iron staffs. They were said to be able to field up to a thousand chariots.
Rulers
![Chu Shan 5th king](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/14/Chu_Shan_5th_king.svg)
#
Duke Wu 414BC
# Duke Wen
# Duke Huan
#
Duke Cheng
#
King Cuo: 323–309BC
# King Qieci
# King Shang
References
Primary sources
*
Zhan Guo Ce
The ''Zhan Guo Ce'', ( W-G: Chan-kuo T'se) also known in English as the ''Strategies of the Warring States'' or ''Annals of the Warring States'', is an ancient Chinese text that contains anecdotes of political manipulation and warfare during the ...
(戰國策)
*
Lüshi Chunqiu
The ''Lüshi Chunqiu'', also known in English as ''Master Lü's Spring and Autumn Annals'', is an encyclopedic Chinese classic text compiled around 239 BC under the patronage of the Qin Dynasty Chancellor Lü Buwei. In the evaluation of Michae ...
(呂氏春秋)
*
Shiji
''Records of the Grand Historian'', also known by its Chinese name ''Shiji'', is a monumental history of China that is the first of China's 24 dynastic histories. The ''Records'' was written in the early 1st century by the ancient Chinese hist ...
(太史公書)
Citations
Books
*
*
*
*
*
{{Zhou Dynasty topics
States and territories established in the 5th century BC
States and territories established in the 4th century BC
States and territories disestablished in the 3rd century BC
Zhou dynasty
History of Hebei