Wilder Graves Penfield (January 26, 1891April 5, 1976) was an

American American(s) may refer to: * American, something of, from, or related to the United States of America, commonly known as the "United States" or "America" ** Americans, citizens and nationals of the United States of America ** American ancestry, pe ...

Canadian Canadians (french: Canadiens) are people identified with the country of Canada. This connection may be residential, legal, historical or cultural. For most Canadians, many (or all) of these connections exist and are collectively the source of ...

neurosurgeon. He expanded

brain surgery Neurosurgery or neurological surgery, known in common parlance as brain surgery, is the medical specialty concerned with the surgical treatment of disorders which affect any portion of the nervous system including the brain, spinal cord and ...

's methods and techniques, including mapping the functions of various regions of the brain such as the

cortical homunculus A cortical homunculus () is a distorted representation of the human body, based on a neurological "map" of the areas and proportions of the human brain dedicated to processing motor functions, or sensory functions, for different parts of the b ...

. His scientific contributions on neural stimulation expand across a variety of topics including hallucinations, illusions, and '' déjà vu''. Penfield devoted much of his thinking to

mental processes Cognition refers to "the mental action or process of acquiring knowledge and understanding through thought, experience, and the senses". It encompasses all aspects of intellectual functions and processes such as: perception, attention, thought, ...

, including contemplation of whether there was any scientific basis for the existence of the human

soul In many religious and philosophical traditions, there is a belief that a soul is "the immaterial aspect or essence of a human being". Etymology The Modern English noun '' soul'' is derived from Old English ''sāwol, sāwel''. The earliest att ...

Biography

Early life and education

Born in

Spokane, Washington Spokane ( ) is the largest city and county seat of Spokane County, Washington, United States. It is in eastern Washington, along the Spokane River, adjacent to the Selkirk Mountains, and west of the Rocky Mountain foothills, south of the ...

, on January 26, 1891, Penfield spent most of his early life in Hudson, Wisconsin. He studied at

Princeton University Princeton University is a private research university in Princeton, New Jersey. Founded in 1746 in Elizabeth as the College of New Jersey, Princeton is the fourth-oldest institution of higher education in the United States and one of the ...

, where he was a member of Cap and Gown Club and played on the football team. After graduation in 1913, he was hired briefly as the team coach. In 1915 he obtained a

Rhodes Scholarship The Rhodes Scholarship is an international postgraduate award for students to study at the University of Oxford, in the United Kingdom. Established in 1902, it is the oldest graduate scholarship in the world. It is considered among the world' ...

Merton College, Oxford Merton College (in full: The House or College of Scholars of Merton in the University of Oxford) is one of the constituent colleges of the University of Oxford in England. Its foundation can be traced back to the 1260s when Walter de Merton, ...

, where he studied neuropathology under Sir

Charles Scott Sherrington Sir Charles Scott Sherrington (27 November 1857 – 4 March 1952) was an eminent English neurophysiologist. His experimental research established many aspects of contemporary neuroscience, including the concept of the spinal reflex as a system ...

. After one term at Merton, Penfield went to France where he served as a dresser in a military hospital in the suburbs of Paris. He was wounded in 1916 when the ferry he was aboard, the SS ''Sussex'', was torpedoed. The following year, he married Helen Kermott, and began studying at the Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, attaining his medical degree in 1918; this was followed by a short period as a house surgeon at the Peter Bent Brigham Hospital in Boston. Returning to Merton College in 1919, Penfield spent the next two years completing his studies; during this time he met Sir

William Osler Sir William Osler, 1st Baronet, (; July 12, 1849 – December 29, 1919) was a Canadian physician and one of the "Big Four" founding professors of Johns Hopkins Hospital. Osler created the first residency program for specialty training of phys ...

. In 1924, he worked for five months with Pío del Río Hortega characterising the type of glial cells known as oligodendroglia. He also studied in Germany with

Fedor Krause Fedor Krause (10 March 1857 – in Friedland in Niederschlesien; 20 September 1937 in Bad Gastein) was a German neurosurgeon who was native of Friedland (Lower Silesia). Biography He originally studied music at the Conservatoire in Ber ...

and Otfrid Foerster, as well as in

New York City New York, often called New York City or NYC, is the List of United States cities by population, most populous city in the United States. With a 2020 population of 8,804,190 distributed over , New York City is also the L ...

. In 1928, during the 6 months he spent in Germany with Dr. Foerster, he learned how to use local anesthesia to keep brain surgery patients awake.

Medical career

After taking a surgical apprenticeship under

Harvey Cushing Harvey Williams Cushing (April 8, 1869 – October 7, 1939) was an American neurosurgeon, pathologist, writer, and draftsman. A pioneer of brain surgery, he was the first exclusive neurosurgeon and the first person to describe Cushing's disease ...

, he obtained a position at the Neurological Institute of New York, where he carried out his first solo operations to treat

epilepsy Epilepsy is a group of non-communicable neurological disorders characterized by recurrent epileptic seizures. Epileptic seizures can vary from brief and nearly undetectable periods to long periods of vigorous shaking due to abnormal electrica ...

. While in New York, he met David Rockefeller, who wished to endow an institute where Penfield could further study the surgical treatment of epilepsy. Academic politics amongst the New York neurologists, however, prevented its establishment in New York, so, in 1928, Penfield accepted an invitation from Sir Vincent Meredith to move to Montreal, Quebec. There, Penfield taught at

McGill University McGill University (french: link=no, Université McGill) is an English-language public research university located in Montreal, Quebec, Canada. Founded in 1821 by royal charter granted by King George IV,Frost, Stanley Brice. ''McGill Univer ...

and the Royal Victoria Hospital, becoming the city's first neurosurgeon.

In 1934, Penfield, along with Dr. William Cone, founded and became the first director of the Montreal Neurological Institute and Hospital at McGill University, established with the

Rockefeller Rockefeller is a German surname, originally given to people from the village of Rockenfeld near Neuwied in the Rhineland and commonly referring to subjects associated with the Rockefeller family. It may refer to: People with the name Rockefeller f ...

funding. That year, he also became a

Canadian citizen Canadian nationality law details the conditions in which a person is a national of Canada. With few exceptions, almost all individuals born in the country are automatically citizens at birth. Foreign nationals may naturalize after living in ...

British subject The term "British subject" has several different meanings depending on the time period. Before 1949, it referred to almost all subjects of the British Empire (including the United Kingdom, Dominions, and colonies, but excluding protectorates ...

within what was then the

British Empire The British Empire was composed of the dominions, colonies, protectorates, mandates, and other territories ruled or administered by the United Kingdom and its predecessor states. It began with the overseas possessions and trading posts e ...

). Penfield was unable to save his only sister, Ruth, who died from brain cancer, though complex surgery he performed added years to her life. Penfield was elected a Foreign Honorary Member of the

American Academy of Arts and Sciences The American Academy of Arts and Sciences (abbreviation: AAA&S) is one of the oldest learned societies in the United States. It was founded in 1780 during the American Revolution by John Adams, John Hancock, James Bowdoin, Andrew Oliver, a ...

in 1950 and retired ten years later in 1960. He was appointed to the

Order of Merit The Order of Merit (french: link=no, Ordre du Mérite) is an order of merit for the Commonwealth realms, recognising distinguished service in the armed forces, science, art, literature, or for the promotion of culture. Established in 1902 by ...

in the 1953 New Year Honours list. He turned his attention to writing, producing a novel as well as his autobiography ''No Man Alone.'' A later biography, ''Something Hidden'', was written by his grandson Jefferson Lewis. In 1960, the year he retired, Penfield was awarded the Lister Medal for his contributions to surgical science. He delivered the corresponding Lister Oration, "Activation of the Record of Human Experience", at the

Royal College of Surgeons of England The Royal College of Surgeons of England (RCS England) is an independent professional body and registered charity that promotes and advances standards of surgical care for patients, and regulates surgery and dentistry in England and Wales. T ...

on April 27, 1961. In 1967, he was made a Companion of the

Order of Canada The Order of Canada (french: Ordre du Canada; abbreviated as OC) is a Canadian state order and the second-highest honour for merit in the system of orders, decorations, and medals of Canada, after the Order of Merit. To coincide with the cen ...

and, in 1994, was posthumously inducted into the

Canadian Medical Hall of Fame __NOTOC__ The Canadian Medical Hall of Fame is a Canadian charitable organization, founded in 1994, that honours Canadians who have contributed to the understanding of disease and improving the health of people. It has an exhibit hall in London, O ...

. Much of his archival material is housed in the

Osler Library The Osler Library, a branch of the McGill University Library and part of ROAAr since 2016, is Canada's foremost scholarly resource for the history of medicine, and one of the most important libraries of its type in North America. It is located ...

at McGill University.

Later life

In his later years, Penfield dedicated himself to the public interest, particularly in support of university education. With his friends

Governor-General Governor-general (plural ''governors-general''), or governor general (plural ''governors general''), is the title of an office-holder. In the context of governors-general and former British colonies, governors-general are appointed as viceroy t ...

Georges Vanier Georges-Philias Vanier (23 April 1888 – 5 March 1967) was a Canadian military officer and diplomat who served as governor general of Canada, the first Quebecer and second Canadian-born person to hold the position. Vanier was born an ...

and Pauline Vanier, he co-founded the

Vanier Institute of the Family The Vanier Institute of the Family is a national, independent, charitable research and education organization that conducts, facilitates and publishes research on the diversity and complexity of family life in Canada. Founded by then- Governor ...

"to promote and guide education in the homeman's first classroom." He was also an early proponent of childhood bilingualism. Penfield died on April 5, 1976, of abdominal cancer at Royal Victoria Hospital in Montreal. He and his wife, Helen, had their ashes buried on the family property in East Bolton on Sargent's Bay, Lake Memphremagog.

Scientific contributions

Neural stimulation

Penfield was a groundbreaking researcher and original surgeon. His development of a neurosurgical technique using an instrument known as the Penfield dissector, which produced the least injurious meningo-cerebral scar, became widely accepted in the field of neurosurgery and remains in regular use. With his colleague Herbert Jasper, he invented the "Montréal Procedure" in which he treated patients with severe

by destroying nerve cells in the

brain A brain is an organ (biology), organ that serves as the center of the nervous system in all vertebrate and most invertebrate animals. It is located in the head, usually close to the sensory organs for senses such as Visual perception, vision. I ...

where the seizures originated. Before operating, he stimulated the brain with electrical probes while the patients were conscious on the operating table (under only

local anesthesia Local anesthesia is any technique to induce the absence of sensation in a specific part of the body, generally for the aim of inducing local analgesia, that is, local insensitivity to pain, although other local senses may be affected as well. It ...

), and observed their responses. In this way he could more accurately target the areas of the brain responsible, reducing the side-effects of the surgery. This technique also allowed him to create maps of the sensory and motor cortices of the brain (see

) showing their connections to the various limbs and organs of the body. These maps are still used today, practically unaltered. Along with Herbert Jasper, he published this work in 1951 (2nd ed., 1954) as the landmark ''Epilepsy and the Functional Anatomy of the Human Brain''. This work contributed a great deal to understanding the

localization of brain function In neuroscience, functional specialization is a theory which suggests that different areas in the brain are specialized for different functions.Flourens, M. J. P. (1824) Recherces experimentales sur les propretes et les fonctions du systeme ne ...

. Penfield's maps showed considerable overlap between regions (e.g. the motor region controlling muscles in the hand sometimes also controlled muscles in the upper arm and shoulder) a feature which he put down to individual variation in brain size and localisation: it has since been established that this is due to the fractured somatotopy of the motor cortex. From these results he developed his cortical homunculus map, which is how the brain sees the body from an inside perspective. Penfield reported that stimulation of the

temporal lobe The temporal lobe is one of the four major lobes of the cerebral cortex in the brain of mammals. The temporal lobe is located beneath the lateral fissure on both cerebral hemispheres of the mammalian brain. The temporal lobe is involved i ...

s could lead to vivid recall of memories. Oversimplified in popular psychology publications, including the best-selling '' I'm OK – You're OK'', this seeded the common misconception that the brain continuously "records" experiences in perfect detail, although these memories are not available to conscious recall. Reported episodes of recall occurred in less than five percent of his patients, though these results have been replicated by modern surgeons. Penfield's hypothesis on this subject was revised in 1970.

Hallucinations

Penfield's scientific contributions go past the

somatosensory In physiology, the somatosensory system is the network of neural structures in the brain and body that produce the perception of touch (haptic perception), as well as temperature (thermoception), body position ( proprioception), and pain. It ...

and the motor cortices; his extensive work of the functions of the brain also included charting the functions of the parietal and temporal cortices. Of his 520 patients, 40 reported that while their temporal lobe was stimulated with an electrode they would recall dreams, smells,

visual The visual system comprises the sensory organ (the eye) and parts of the central nervous system (the retina containing photoreceptor cells, the optic nerve, the optic tract and the visual cortex) which gives organisms the sense of sight ...

and

auditory hallucination An auditory hallucination, or paracusia, is a form of hallucination that involves perceiving sounds without auditory stimulus. While experiencing an auditory hallucination, the affected person would hear a sound or sounds which did not come from ...

s, as well as out-of-body experiences. In his studies, Penfield found that when the

was stimulated it produced a combination of hallucinations, dream, and memory recollection. These experiences would only last as long as the electrode stimulations were present on the cortex, and in some cases when patient experienced hallucinatory experiences that evoked certain smells, sensations of flashing light, stroking the back of their hand, and many others. Other stimulations had patients experiencing ''déjà vu'', fear, loneliness, and strangeness. Certain areas of patients' temporal lobes were stimulated with an electrode in order to experience past memories. Penfield called these perceptual illusions (physical hallucinations) interpretive responses. According to Penfield, when the temporal lobe was stimulated there were two types of perceptions experienced by patients: # Experential experience – where the patient recorded hearing a song, or seeing a flash of light. # Strip experience – The recall seems familiar to the patient and comes from the patient's past even though the patient may not be able to pinpoint the exact occasion. The recall of a memory or memories could reinforce the emotion tied to the experience. Penfield stressed that the "things that have been recorded are the things which once came within the spot-light of attention". Penfield had over 25 years of research using electrical stimulation to produce experiential hallucinations. His conclusions show that patients experience a range of hallucinations from simple to complex. They also show that hallucinations can be stimulated.

Déjà vu

Penfield's expansion of the interpretive cortex includes the phenomenon of '' déjà vu''. ''Déjà vu'' is the sensation that an experience a person is having has previously been experienced. ''Déjà vu'' is typically experienced by people between the ages of 15 to 25, and affects approximately 60-70% of the population. It is thought to be a mismatch of the sensory input people receive and the system in which the brain recalls memory. Another thought on the cause of ''déjà vu'' is that there is a malfunction in the brain's short- and long-term memory systems where memories become stored in incorrect systems. There are several ways one can recognize familiar experiences – by mentally retrieving memories of a previous experience, or by having a feeling that an experience has occurred when it actually has not. ''Déjà vu'' is having that feeling of familiarity in a situation that is completely new. Memory is good at being familiar with objects, however it does not do well with the configuration or organization of objects. ''Déjà vu'' is an extreme reaction to the mind telling an individual that they are having a familiar experience. ''Déjà vu'' is thought to be a consistent phenomenon. However, it has been associated with

, and with multiple psychiatric disorders such as

schizophrenia Schizophrenia is a mental disorder characterized by continuous or relapsing episodes of psychosis. Major symptoms include hallucinations (typically hearing voices), delusions, and disorganized thinking. Other symptoms include social w ...

and

anxiety Anxiety is an emotion which is characterized by an unpleasant state of inner turmoil and includes feelings of dread over anticipated events. Anxiety is different than fear in that the former is defined as the anticipation of a future threat wh ...

, Déjà vu but there has not been a clear, frequent diagnostic correlation between ''déjà vu'' and neurological or psychiatric disorders, except with patients that have a possibility of being epileptic. Temporal lobe epilepsy affects the hippocampus. Patients that suffer from this medical diagnosis are said to have a misfiring of the brain's neurons. The neurons transmit at random which results in the false sense of experiencing a familiar situation that had previously been experienced. Different types of ''déjà vu'' are difficult to pinpoint because researchers who have studied ''déjà vu'' have developed their own categories and differentiations. On a broad perspective of research that is available, ''déjà vu'' can be divided into two categories: associative ''déjà vu'' and biological déjà vu. Associative ''déjà vu'' is typically experienced by normal, healthy individuals who experience things with the senses that can be associated to other experiences or past events. Biological ''déjà vu'' occurs in individuals who suffer from temporal lobe epilepsy. Their experience of ''déjà vu'' occurs usually just before they experience a seizure. Recent research is looking at the new occurrence of chronic ''déjà vu''. Chronic ''déjà vu'' is when an individual is experiencing a constant state of ''déjà vu''. Failure of the temporal lobe is thought to be the cause of this phenomenon because the circuits that connect to memories get stuck in an active state, and create memories that never happened.

Legacy

Penfield was designated a National Historic Person in 1988 by the government of Canada. As such, a federal historical marker from the national Historic Sites & Monuments Board and

Parks Canada Parks Canada (PC; french: Parcs Canada),Parks Canada is the applied title under the Federal Identity Program; the legal title is Parks Canada Agency (). is the agency of the Government of Canada which manages the country's 48 National Parks, th ...

was erected, located at a building that bears his name on University Street, part of the McGill University campus in Montreal. A postage stamp honouring Penfield was issued by

Canada Post Canada Post Corporation (french: Société canadienne des postes), trading as Canada Post (french: Postes Canada), is a Crown corporation that functions as the primary postal operator in Canada. Originally known as Royal Mail Canada (the operat ...

on March 15, 1991. ''Avenue du Docteur-Penfield'' (), on the slope of

Mount Royal Mount Royal (french: link=no, Mont Royal, ) is a large intrusive rock hill or small mountain in the city of Montreal, immediately west of Downtown Montreal, Quebec, Canada. The best-known hypothesis for the origin of the name Montreal is the ...

in Montreal, was named in Penfield's honour on October 5, 1978. Part of this avenue borders McGill University's campus and intersects with Promenade Sir-William-Oslermeaning medical historians and the like may amuse themselves by arranging to "meet at Osler and Penfield". A portrait of Wilder Penfield hangs in Rhodes House at the

University of Oxford , mottoeng = The Lord is my light , established = , endowment = £6.1 billion (including colleges) (2019) , budget = £2.145 billion (2019–20) , chancellor ...

, England. Penfield was elected a

Fellow of the Royal Society Fellowship of the Royal Society (FRS, ForMemRS and HonFRS) is an award granted by the judges of the Royal Society of London to individuals who have made a "substantial contribution to the improvement of natural knowledge, including mathemati ...

(FRS) of the United Kingdom in 1943. In honour of Wilder Graves Penfield's contribution to the public sector in Montreal, notably alongside his interest in further developing education, Wilder Penfield Elementary School was also established as part of the

Lester B. Pearson School Board The Lester B. Pearson School Board (LBPSB, french: Commission scolaire Lester-B.-Pearson, CSLBP) is one of the largest school boards on the island of Montreal and one of the nine English school boards in the province of Quebec. It is headquartere ...

. Penfield building, one of John Abbott College's ten buildings, also bears the name of the famous neurosurgeon. Penfield was the subject of a Google doodle on January 26, 2018, marking the 127th anniversary of his birth. The doodle appeared on the Google homepage in selected countries on five continents. Penfield Children's Center In

Milwaukee Milwaukee ( ), officially the City of Milwaukee, is both the most populous and most densely populated city in the U.S. state of Wisconsin and the county seat of Milwaukee County. With a population of 577,222 at the 2020 census, Milwaukee i ...

, Wisconsin, is named for Dr. Penfield for his advocacy of early intervention for children with developmental delays and disabilities.

Eponyms

*Penfield's homunculus ( neuroanatomic feature first characterized by Penfield in 1937) *Penfield syndrome (a form of autonomic epileptic seizure) *Penfield dissector (a type of surgical instrument used in neurosurgery and other disciplines)

Honorary degrees

Penfield was awarded many

honorary degree An honorary degree is an academic degree for which a university (or other degree-awarding institution) has waived all of the usual requirements. It is also known by the Latin phrases ''honoris causa'' ("for the sake of the honour") or '' ad h ...

s in recognition of his medical career. These include:

In popular culture

* Wilder Penfield was the subject of a '' Heritage Minute'', dramatizing his development of the Montreal procedure. When Dr. Penfield stimulates the seizure-producing part of her brain, an epileptic patient exclaims: "I can smell burnt toast!" This ''Heritage Minute'' was widely shown and again made Penfield a household name in Canada. * In Robert J. Sawyer's 2012 novel '' Triggers'', it is revealed that the major character of Dr. Ranjip Singh, a Canadian, was inspired to pursue his career in neuroscience by having seen the "I can smell burnt toast" Heritage Minute about Penfield. * In

science fiction Science fiction (sometimes shortened to Sci-Fi or SF) is a genre of speculative fiction which typically deals with imaginative and futuristic concepts such as advanced science and technology, space exploration, time travel, parallel uni ...

author Philip K. Dick's '' Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?'', characters use a household device called a Penfield Mood Organ to dial up emotions on demand. * Shirow Masamune's anime series '' Ghost Hound'' makes several references to Penfield and his studies. * The song "Wilder Penfield" by the Dead Sea Apes, a UK-based

psychedelic rock Psychedelic rock is a rock music genre that is inspired, influenced, or representative of psychedelic culture, which is centered on perception-altering hallucinogenic drugs. The music incorporated new electronic sound effects and recording te ...

group, from ''The Sun Behind The Sun'', a collaboration with Black Tempest released in February 2013 on Cardinal Fuzz records. * In

Ray Loriga Jorge Loriga Torrenova, better known as Ray Loriga (born March 5, 1967), is a Spanish author, screenwriter, and director. His first novel ''Lo Peor de todo'' (''The Worst Thing of All''), was published in 1992, and was followed by ''Héroes'' i ...

's 1999 novel ''

Tokio ya no nos quiere Tokio ya no nos quiere ( en, Tokyo Doesn't Love Us Anymore) is a novel published in 1999 by Spanish author Ray Loriga. It was published in English in 2003 by Canongate, in a translation by John King. Plot summary It is a first-person account of ...

'', Penfield's method of stimulating the temporal lobes is described and modified to treat the main character who has issues with memory recollection. * In the video game '' Xenosaga Episode I: Der Wille zur Macht'', "Penfield Mapping" is seemingly the process of drawing a

, necessary for one to enter a virtual environment. * Wilder Penfield's, Sensory & Motor Homunculus 3D figures have been on permanent exhibition in the National History Museum, London. Penfield's Homunculi have become popular exhibits.

College football coaching record

Between his graduation from Princeton and his studies at Oxford, Penfield served as Princeton's head football coach for one season.

References

Selected books and publications

Books

*''Cytology and Cellular Pathology of the Nervous System''. By various authors. Edited by W. Penfield. Three volumes, 1280 pages, 1932
read online
*"''Epilepsy and Cerebral Localization: A Study of the Mechanism, Treatment and Prevention of Epileptic Seizures''". By Wilder Penfield and Theodore C. Erickson. Chapter XIV by Herbert H. Jasper. Chapter XX by M. R. Harrower-Erickson. Charles C. Thomas, 1941. *Penfield, Wilder (1941). ''Canadian Army of Military Neurosurgery''. Ottawa: Government Distribution Office.
read online
* *Penfield, Wilder; Kristiansen, Kristian (1951). ''Epileptic seizure patterns; a study of the localizing value of initial phenomena in focal cortical seizures,''. Springfield, Ill.: Thomas. . *''Epilepsy and the Functional Anatomy of the Human Brain.'' 2nd edition. Jasper, H., and Penfield, W. Little, Brown and Co., 1954. *
read online
*''Speech and Brain Mechanisms'', Penfield, Wilder and Roberts, Lamar, Princeton University Press, 1959.
read online
*''The Torch, a story of Hippocrates.'' Penfield, W. Little, Brown and Co.; 1960. . (Historical novel) "A story of love, treachery, and the battle for truth in ancient Greece."
read online
*''The Mystery of the Mind : A Critical Study of Consciousness and the Human Brain''. Penfield, Wilder. Princeton University Press, 1975.
read online
*''No Man Alone: A Neurosurgeon's Life'', Little, Brown and Co., 1977. . Penfield's autobiography.
read online
*''Something hidden : a biography of Wilder Penfield.'' Jefferson Lewis, Doubleday and Co., 1981. .
read online

Articles

* *

External links

* 1958 ''Gateways To The Mind'' - Note: Starting at 46 minutes there is a 3 minutes video talk by Wilder Penfield
watch online
*1981 ''Something Hidden : A Portrait of Wilder Penfield'' by Bob Lower and Jefferson Lewis, National Film Board of Canada and Canadian Broadcasting Corporation
VHS and DVD
* ttp://archive.gg.ca/honours/search-recherche/honours-desc.asp?lang=e&TypeID=orc&id=2239 Penfield's Order of Canada citation* ttps://archivalcollections.library.mcgill.ca/index.php/wilder-penfield-fonds Wilder Penfield Fondsat the Osler Library of the History of Medicine, McGill University. ** ttp://digital.library.mcgill.ca/penfield/ Searchable database of the Penfield Fondsfrom the Osler Library of the History of Medicine ** A selection of items from the fonds have been digitized
Wilder Penfield Digital Collection

Jefferson Lewis Fonds
at the Osler Library of the History of Medicine, McGill University, contains materials assembled by Jefferson Lewis for the purpose of writing his biography of Penfield, Something Hidden

at the "Great Canadian Psychology" website (University of Alberta).
Wilder Graves Penfield, MD, OM, CC, FRS, 1891-1976 / text by Kate Williams and Wilder G. Penfield III archive
{{DEFAULTSORT:Penfield, Wilder 1891 births 1976 deaths Alumni of Merton College, Oxford American emigrants to Canada American Rhodes Scholars Anglophone Quebec people Canadian medical researchers Canadian Presbyterians Deaths from cancer in Quebec Canadian cognitive neuroscientists Companions of the Order of Canada Canadian Companions of the Order of St Michael and St George Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences Canadian Fellows of the Royal Society Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences Foreign Members of the USSR Academy of Sciences Johns Hopkins School of Medicine alumni McGill University faculty Members of the Order of Merit Canadian neurosurgeons Neuropsychologists Persons of National Historic Significance (Canada) People from Hudson, Wisconsin Princeton Tigers football coaches Princeton Tigers football players Players of American football from Spokane, Washington