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The Warlord Rebellion in northeastern Shandong was an uprising of several allied Chinese
warlord A warlord is a person who exercises military, economic, and political control over a region in a country without a strong national government; largely because of coercive control over the armed forces. Warlords have existed throughout much of h ...
armies under the leadership of
Zhang Zongchang Zhang Zongchang (1881 – 3 September 1932) was a Chinese warlord in Shandong in the early 20th century. ''Time'' dubbed him China's "basest warlord". He was known by many nicknames such as the "Dogmeat General" (), based on the name of his fa ...
in 1929. The rebels wanted to regain their former territories in
Shandong Shandong ( , ; ; Chinese postal romanization, alternately romanized as Shantung) is a coastal Provinces of China, province of the China, People's Republic of China and is part of the East China region. Shandong has played a major role in His ...
from
Liu Zhennian Liu Zhennian () (1898 in Nangong, Hebei, China - May 13, 1935) was a Chinese military commander during the Warlord Era and Nanjing decade in the history of the Republic of China. Liu graduated from the Baoding Military Academy and served as ...
, the man who had defected from Zhang to the Nationalist government in
Nanjing Nanjing (; , Mandarin pronunciation: ), Postal Map Romanization, alternately romanized as Nanking, is the capital of Jiangsu Provinces of China, province of the China, People's Republic of China. It is a sub-provincial city, a megacity, and t ...
during the
Northern Expedition The Northern Expedition was a military campaign launched by the National Revolutionary Army (NRA) of the Kuomintang (KMT), also known as the "Chinese Nationalist Party", against the Beiyang government and other regional warlords in 1926. The ...
. After some initial successes, the rebels were defeated due to the indiscipline of their forces. In the end, the uprising failed to topple Liu Zhennian's rule over eastern Shandong, but resulted in high civilian casualties and widespread destruction at the hands of both sides in the conflict.


Background

After the death of
Yuan Shikai Yuan Shikai (; 16 September 1859 – 6 June 1916) was a Chinese military and government official who rose to power during the late Qing dynasty and eventually ended the Qing dynasty rule of China in 1912, later becoming the Emperor of China. H ...
in 1916, China disintegrated as various military commanders seized power throughout the country. Organized into cliques, they controlled the
Beiyang government The Beiyang government (), officially the Republic of China (), sometimes spelled Peiyang Government, refers to the government of the Republic of China which sat in its capital Peking (Beijing) between 1912 and 1928. It was internationally ...
and constantly fought against each other for supremacy in what came to be known as the Warlord Era. One of the most notorious warlords from this period was Zhang Zongchang, who was the ''
de facto ''De facto'' ( ; , "in fact") describes practices that exist in reality, whether or not they are officially recognized by laws or other formal norms. It is commonly used to refer to what happens in practice, in contrast with '' de jure'' ("by l ...
'' ruler of Shandong at the time and known for his brutality. Although he was hated and feared by the civilian population due to his authoritarian methods, the so-called "Dogmeat General" commanded a relatively loyal army and managed to keep Shandong under his control for much of the late 1920s; in this he was aided by subordinates such as
Chu Yupu Chu Yupu (; 1887–1929) was a Chinese general who served under Yuan Shikai and later Zhang Zongchang. In 1921 he entered the service of Fengtian Province warlord Zhang Zuolin. He first fought against Sun Yat-sen's Kuomintang forces in August 1913 ...
and
Liu Zhennian Liu Zhennian () (1898 in Nangong, Hebei, China - May 13, 1935) was a Chinese military commander during the Warlord Era and Nanjing decade in the history of the Republic of China. Liu graduated from the Baoding Military Academy and served as ...
. Zhang's rule came to an end, however, when
Chiang Kai-shek Chiang Kai-shek (31 October 1887 – 5 April 1975), also known as Chiang Chung-cheng and Jiang Jieshi, was a Chinese Nationalist politician, revolutionary, and military leader who served as the leader of the Republic of China (ROC) from 1928 ...
's Nationalist government defeated him during the
Northern Expedition The Northern Expedition was a military campaign launched by the National Revolutionary Army (NRA) of the Kuomintang (KMT), also known as the "Chinese Nationalist Party", against the Beiyang government and other regional warlords in 1926. The ...
in 1928. Like many other warlords, Zhang was not willing to accept his reduced status and exile in
Dalian Dalian () is a major sub-provincial port city in Liaoning province, People's Republic of China, and is Liaoning's second largest city (after the provincial capital Shenyang) and the third-most populous city of Northeast China. Located on ...
. In order to regain his former power base, he began to plot an uprising with his long-time follower Chu Yupu and another warlord, Huang Feng-chi. Zhang also allegedly tried to enlist the help of the White Russian commanders Grigory Semyonov and General
Konstantin Petrovich Nechaev Konstantin Petrovich Nechaev (russian: Константин Петрович Нечаев, pl, Konstantin Pietrowicz Nieczajew; 31 May 1883 – 5 February 1946) was an Imperial Russian Army officer and White movement leader, who commanded a larg ...
. Historian Philip S. Jowett considered it possible that Nechaev, and a few other Russian mercenaries joined Zhang for his attempted comeback. In his plans to recapture Shandong, Zhang Zongchang had a number of important assets: firstly, tens of thousands of his former soldiers still remained in Shandong. Most of them had not been able to join the
National Revolutionary Army The National Revolutionary Army (NRA; ), sometimes shortened to Revolutionary Army () before 1928, and as National Army () after 1928, was the military arm of the Kuomintang (KMT, or the Chinese Nationalist Party) from 1925 until 1947 in China ...
(NRA) after Zhang's defeat, and remained unemployed. In a precarious economic situation and mostly still loyal to their old commander, they joined his forces for a second time. These Shandong and Zhili Army ex-soldiers were not necessarily reliable nor combat-effective, however. In the face of the Nationalist forces during the Northern Expedition, Zhang's followers had "melted away without putting up much of a fight", and were even more lacking in training and weaponry now that they had been demobilized. While Zhang's forces were not in the best shape, they had the advantage of not having to face regular NRA troops in eastern Shandong, as the area was under the control of Zhang's former associate Liu Zhennian, nicknamed "The Killer". Liu had defected to the Nationalists during the Northern Expedition, and was awarded to rule eastern Shandong like an "unreformed warlord" without intervention since October 1928. Although ''
de jure In law and government, ''de jure'' ( ; , "by law") describes practices that are legally recognized, regardless of whether the practice exists in reality. In contrast, ("in fact") describes situations that exist in reality, even if not legall ...
'' part of the NRA, Liu's forces were typical of the average warlord, and suffered from little training in comparison to regular armies. Liu was not particularly loyal to the Nationalist government in
Nanjing Nanjing (; , Mandarin pronunciation: ), Postal Map Romanization, alternately romanized as Nanking, is the capital of Jiangsu Provinces of China, province of the China, People's Republic of China. It is a sub-provincial city, a megacity, and t ...
, and he had no support from the local population which he had terrorized, having driven them into rebellion in some areas. The counties of
Laiyang Laiyang city () is a county-level city within Yantai bordering Qingdao, located in the middle of the Shandong Peninsula, in Shandong province, China. The majority (70%) of its population are farmers and it is famous for producing the Laiyang pear ...
and Zhaoyuan were held by
Red Spear Society The Red Spear Society began as a rural self-defense movement in Henan, Hebei and Shandong in northern China during the Warlord Era in the 1920s. These were local groups of small-holders and tenant farmers organized to defend villages against roa ...
peasant insurgents by early 1929. Lastly, Zhang possibly had covert financial support from the
Empire of Japan The also known as the Japanese Empire or Imperial Japan, was a historical nation-state and great power that existed from the Meiji Restoration in 1868 until the enactment of the post-World War II 1947 constitution and subsequent form ...
, which increased his confidence in recapturing Shandong.


Rebellion


Start of the conflict

Security conditions in eastern Shandong were already deteriorating before the arrival of Zhang, as Liu's garrison at Longkou and Huangxian mutinied in late January 1929. The local commanders, namely Liu Kai-tai, Li Hsi-tung, Sze Tien-pin, and Kao Peng-chi had reportedly planned to overthrow Liu Zhennian, prompting him to dismiss them, whereupon they revolted and renounced their allegiance to the Nanjing government. Their 3,000 forces, consisting of ex-Zhili and Shandong troops went on to completely loot Longkou, Huangxian, and
Dengzhou Dengzhou (), formerly Deng County (), is a city in Nanyang, Henan, China. It has an area of and a population of 1,500,000. The urban area is 35 km², and the urban population is 300,000. The city is located in the southwest of Henan provi ...
. Foreigners who had lived in these towns fled onto two Japanese warships that harbored at the coast by chance. The violence was only quelled when an additional
Imperial Japanese Navy The Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN; Kyūjitai: Shinjitai: ' 'Navy of the Greater Japanese Empire', or ''Nippon Kaigun'', 'Japanese Navy') was the navy of the Empire of Japan from 1868 to 1945, when it was dissolved following Japan's surrender ...
detachment arrived to protect Japanese citizens in the area, soon followed by 20,000 troops loyal to Liu. Instead of resisting, the mutineers fled into areas held by the Red Spear insurgents. Allying themselves with the peasant rebels, the mutineers were reportedly preparing an attack on Longkou by early February. The morale of Liu's remaining forces in the area was extremely low. In course of February, the rebels gained the upper hand and Liu was pushed back to the surroundings of
Zhifu Zhifu District is an urban district of the prefecture-level city of Yantai in Shandong Province, China. Name As a separate city, Zhifu's name was variously romanized as Chefoo, and . Although this name was used for the city by foreigners pr ...
, his ''de facto'' capital and the most important city of northeastern Shandong. It is likely that the whole mutiny had been organized or at least influenced by Zhang, and when he, Chu and Huang landed with a small
retinue A retinue is a body of persons "retained" in the service of a noble, royal personage, or dignitary; a ''suite'' (French "what follows") of retainers. Etymology The word, recorded in English since circa 1375, stems from Old French ''retenue'', ...
at Longkou on 19 February, the mutineers promptly joined them. The warlords then set up their headquarters at Dengzhou, and marched on Zhifu. Fighting started near Fushan, 15 miles west of Zhifu, in late February. By that time, Zhang's army counted 5,000 soldiers, but he was soon reinforced by Huang who managed to gather an army of 26,000 men. Their opponent, Liu, had much fewer NRA soldiers at his disposal and would receive only "half-hearted" support from the central government during the rebellion: 200,000 rounds of ammunition and 50,000 yuans as
war chest A war chest is a metaphor for any collection of tools or money intended to be used in a challenging or dangerous situation. Historically, it referred to an actual chest located in the homes or barracks of soldiers or military leadership, in which ...
. His military position was further impaired by the fact that part of Shandong was occupied by the
Imperial Japanese Army The was the official ground-based armed force of the Empire of Japan from 1868 to 1945. It was controlled by the Imperial Japanese Army General Staff Office and the Ministry of the Army, both of which were nominally subordinate to the Emper ...
that refused to allow NRA reinforcements through. In this way, the Japanese deliberately or unintentionally aided Zhang's uprising.


First battle at Zhifu and stalemate

After some skirmishes, Zhang arrived at Zhifu with a large force of about 24,000 troops, while Liu had only been able to muster 7,000 men for the town's defense. The two sides clashed on 21 February, and the rebels were defeated despite their superior numbers, probably because they were badly armed and trained in comparison to the NRA soldiers. Furthermore, Zhang Zongchang, who might have rallied his men, was nowhere to be found during the engagement. The warlord army lost 500 men (200 dead, 300 captured) and, more importantly, 2,000–3,000 rifles as well as 15 machine guns. Zhang and his allies remained undaunted by this first setback, and retreated to Dengzhou. What followed were weeks of "desultory fighting" during which government as well as rebel troops terrorized the local population, while the warlord alliance entered negotiations with Liu in hopes of convincing him to surrender. On 25 February, there were reports that Liu's army had suffered from further defections, as 15,000 active troops near
Weihai Weihai (), formerly called Weihaiwei (), is a prefecture-level city and major seaport in easternmost Shandong province. It borders Yantai to the west and the Yellow Sea to the east, and is the closest Chinese city to South Korea. Weihai's popul ...
wei had allegedly declared for Zhang. By the end of the month, Zhang claimed to control all of eastern Shandong with the exception of Zhifu and its surroundings. Around this time, Zhang publicly announced that a coalition of warlords, including himself, Chu Yupu,
Yan Xishan Yan Xishan (; 8 October 1883 – 22 July 1960, ) was a Chinese warlord who served in the government of the Republic of China. He effectively controlled the province of Shanxi from the 1911 Xinhai Revolution to the 1949 Communist victory in ...
,
Wu Peifu Wu Peifu or Wu P'ei-fu (; April 22, 1874 – December 4, 1939) was a major figure in the struggles between the warlords who dominated Republican China from 1916 to 1927. Early career Born in Shandong Province in eastern China, Wu initi ...
,
Bai Chongxi Bai Chongxi (18 March 1893 – 2 December 1966; , , Xiao'erjing: ) was a Chinese general in the National Revolutionary Army of the Republic of China (ROC) and a prominent Chinese Nationalist leader. He was of Hui ethnicity and of the Musli ...
,
Qi Xieyuan Qi Xieyuan (; April 28, 1885 - December 18, 1946), born Qi Ying, with a courtesy name of Qi Fuwan and the art name of Yaoshan, was a general of the military of the Republic of China and a warlord of the Zhili clique. He defected to the Japanese ...
, and a number
Manchuria Manchuria is an exonym (derived from the endo demonym " Manchu") for a historical and geographic region in Northeast Asia encompassing the entirety of present-day Northeast China (Inner Manchuria) and parts of the Russian Far East (Outer M ...
n military commanders would soon launch a massive campaign against the KMT. No actual alliance was formed, however, and the "whole affair died down again, as suddenly as it had started". Zhang did however manage to contact one NRA regiment consisting of former Shandong Army members in
Beijing } Beijing ( ; ; ), Chinese postal romanization, alternatively romanized as Peking ( ), is the Capital city, capital of the China, People's Republic of China. It is the center of power and development of the country. Beijing is the world's Li ...
, and convinced them to revolt on 2 March 1929. Their uprising in Beijing was quickly crushed, and the Nanjing government consequently took "precautions" to prevent further ex-Shandong soldiers in the NRA from rebelling. Meanwhile, warlord soldiers razed six towns and 50 villages, partially in retaliation for the murder of a rebel officer and an assassination attempt on Zhang, but also out of frustration about the disappointing course of the rebellion as well as simple greed and vandalism. Captured women and girls were sold as slaves on Huangxian's market for 10–20 Mexican dollars (the Mexican silver dollar was the main currency used in China at the time). One group of rebels under General Li Hsi Tung marched westward and plundered
Laizhou Laizhou, alternately romanized as Laichow, is a county-level city in the Prefecture-level city of Yantai, Shandong Province, China. As of 2008, Laizhou had a population of 902,000, out of which 188,000 are urban residents. Laizhou traditionally ...
, before returning to the frontlines near Zhifu. In comparison, Liu's forces behaved little better. The Nationalist-aligned warlord ignored any orders from Chiang Kai-shek, and his men posed as "protectors" at the same time as they robbed and abused the local peasants. Many citizens of Zhifu had so little confidence in the government forces' capabilities to end the rebellion that they fled to Dalian. There was also growing international concern about the security of foreigners in eastern Shandong. As result, several foreign warships, including the , HMS ''Cornflower'', and , had arrived at Zhifu to prevent anti-foreign pogroms that could erupt due to the chaotic situation. This chaos allowed the Red Spear Society which already occupied parts of the hinterland to expand its influence, as many locals turned to the peasant rebels to protect them. Other villages in Shandong formed their own self-defense groups, but these did not necessarily cooperate. In Tung-nan County, at least three irregular armed groups were active at the time of the warlord incursion, namely the small "Southern Army", the 2,000-men strong force of Wang Tzu-ch'eng, and a White Spear Society branch. Although the latter had been explicitly mobilized to protect locals from Zhang Zongchang's forces, it instead had to defend itself from attacks by the other two bands. After defeating them, the White Spears became rather popular and powerful in Shandong's hinterland. Nevertheless, none of the secret societies could openly challenge the rampaging soldiers, as the peasant militias were too poorly armed.


Height and defeat of the rebels

In early March, the warlord alliance and Liu agreed to a five-day ceasefire during which the rebels attempted to bribe Liu to defect back to them. They offered him 100,000 yuan, but Liu "thought his loyalty was worth at least 500,000 yuan". Zhang and his allies did not meet this price, however, and Liu remained on the government side. As no agreement was forthcoming, both Zhang and Liu gathered more troops, and with the truce over, the rebels again marched on Zhifu. They besieged the city, and were soon reinforced by opportunistic bandits and another warlord,
Sun Dianying Sun Dianying (; 1889–1948) was a Chinese bandit leader, warlord, and National Revolutionary Army commander who fought in the Warlord Era, Second Sino-Japanese War, and Chinese Civil War, earning notoriety for changing sides multiple times in ...
, who brought 7,000 fresh soldiers with him. Eventually, the city's defenders were betrayed by their own comrades: One of Liu's regiments under Colonel Liang defected to the rebels, allowing them to capture the city on 27 March. Nevertheless, the NRA troops managed to retreat in good order and with most of their ammunition eastward. Zhang used his victory and conquest of more territory to impose heavy taxes on the local population. Initially, the warlord forces behaviour was relatively disciplined, but on 6 April "they ran amok" in Zhifu, starting a six-day long crime spree of killing, looting and raping. Eventually, the officers managed to regain control over their men and put a stop to the "worst outrages", though at this point the city was largely destroyed. Meanwhile, the Japanese and Chinese governments signed an agreement on 28 March that resulted in the withdrawal of the Japanese military from Shandong. Fearing that Zhang might occupy the areas vacated by the Japanese, however, Chinese
Minister of Foreign Affairs A foreign affairs minister or minister of foreign affairs (less commonly minister for foreign affairs) is generally a cabinet minister in charge of a state's foreign policy and relations. The formal title of the top official varies between co ...
Wang Zhengting requested the Imperial Japanese Army to delay their withdrawal until the Nanjing government was in a position to secure Shandong. Liu and some of his forces had managed to retreat from Zhifu to
Muping Muping District (), formerly also known as Ninghai or Ninghaichow, is a district administered by the prefecture-level city of Yantai, Shandong province, People's Republic of China, and is the easternmost county-level division The administr ...
, where the warlord army again put them under siege. Liu launched a first sally against the besiegers on 1 April, and reportedly managed to kill 2,000 enemy troops. Nevertheless, Zhang prepared to break the town's defenses, namely its medieval but strong walls, through an
escalade {{Unreferenced, date=May 2007 Escalade is the act of scaling defensive walls or ramparts with the aid of ladders. Escalade was a prominent feature of sieges in ancient and medieval warfare, and though it is no longer common in modern warfare ...
. To relieve his besieging army, he forcibly conscripted civilians as gravediggers and
coolie A coolie (also spelled koelie, kuli, khuli, khulie, cooli, cooly, or quli) is a term for a low-wage labourer, typically of South Asian or East Asian descent. The word ''coolie'' was first popularized in the 16th century by European traders acros ...
s. As the siege progressed, Liu was eager to surrender, and was supported in this regard by Muping's
chamber of commerce A chamber of commerce, or board of trade, is a form of business network. For example, a local organization of businesses whose goal is to further the interests of businesses. Business owners in towns and cities form these local societies to ...
which hoped it could avoid the city's destruction through a peaceful solution. Confident of imminent victory, Zhang refused Liu's offer on 4 April. This time, however, the indiscipline and lust for plunder of his troops crippled Zhang's attempt to finally destroy Liu. Losing interest in fighting and preferring to loot the undefended countryside, many warlord soldiers deserted their posts, reducing the strength of Zhang's army. A final attempt to capture Muping was completely defeated on 22 April, and Zhang's army was routed. While Zhang was still surrounded by a number of loyal troops, his situation quickly deteriorated and Liu retook Zhifu in a counter-offensive on 23 April. Thereafter, any remaining unity among the warlords' army had collapsed; the rebels fled into the countryside, where they became little more than a number of "disorganised rabbles". The leaders of the insurgency simply attempted to escape the wrath of the government troops and civilian population. Zhang reportedly made "arrangements" with the Chinese government, and fled to Dalian on 23 April. The Japanese authorities of the
Kwantung Leased Territory The Kwantung Leased Territory ( ja, 關東州, ''Kantō-shū''; ) was a leased territory of the Empire of Japan in the Liaodong Peninsula from 1905 to 1945. Japan first acquired Kwantung from the Qing Empire in perpetuity in 1895 in the Tr ...
did not allow Zhang to enter Dalian, however, prompting him to travel to Moji-ku in Japan instead. On the other side, Chu Yupu and his remaining 1,000–4,500 loyal troops fled to the town of Fushan, whose 20,000 inhabitants they took hostage. The following 13-day siege by Nationalist forces was marked by atrocities at the hands of Chu's soldiers. Besides mass rapes and robberies, the defenders also tied 400 women and children to posts on the town walls in order to use them as human shields. Soldiers from both sides who were wounded in front of the city were left to die, as neither side allowed
Red Cross The International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement is a Humanitarianism, humanitarian movement with approximately 97 million Volunteering, volunteers, members and staff worldwide. It was founded to protect human life and health, to ensure re ...
workers to bring them to safety. According to some accounts, Liu and Chu eventually allowed women and children to leave the city on the insistence of
Christian missionaries A Christian mission is an organized effort for the propagation of the Christian faith. Missions involve sending individuals and groups across boundaries, most commonly geographical boundaries, to carry on evangelism or other activities, such ...
. Jowett considered these accounts "doubtful", however, since "such compassion would be out of character" for either commander. Following negotiations organized by the
United States The United States of America (U.S.A. or USA), commonly known as the United States (U.S. or US) or America, is a country Continental United States, primarily located in North America. It consists of 50 U.S. state, states, a Washington, D.C., ...
consul Consul (abbrev. ''cos.''; Latin plural ''consules'') was the title of one of the two chief magistrates of the Roman Republic, and subsequently also an important title under the Roman Empire. The title was used in other European city-states throu ...
of Zhifu, Chu surrendered Fushan to the NRA. Thereafter, many women and girls committed
mass suicide Mass suicide is a form of suicide, occurring when a group of people simultaneously kill themselves. Overview Mass suicide sometimes occurs in religious settings. In war, defeated groups may resort to mass suicide rather than being captured. Su ...
by jumping into the town's wells because they did not want to bear the perceived "shame" of being a rape victim. Besides the civilian casualties of the siege, around 1,500 NRA soldiers and 2,000 rebels died in combat at Fushan; many surviving warlord soldiers were killed out of revenge after the town's capture. Fushan was also completely looted, first by the rebel forces and then by the NRA. Chu Yupu, however, was spared by the Nationalists and allowed to go into exile in
Korea Korea ( ko, 한국, or , ) is a peninsular region in East Asia. Since 1945, it has been divided at or near the 38th parallel, with North Korea (Democratic People's Republic of Korea) comprising its northern half and South Korea (Republic ...
with $400,000 in silver currency and bars. Jowett assumes that he bribed his opponents for safe passage.


Aftermath

With the warlord rebellion defeated, peace only returned temporarily to northeastern Shandong. Soon after the conflict, Liu Zhennian and another Nationalist general/warlord, Jen Ying-chi, fought a brutal two-day war over who had the greater authority in Shandong, which Liu won. As the warlord rebellion had worsened the famine and instability affecting Shandong, it also stimulated the mass emigration of people from Shandong into the safer and more prosperous Manchuria. Meanwhile, the Red Spears' uprising further escalated; by August 1929, the peasant rebels had taken control over much of northern Shandong's hinterland as well as Dengzhou. Having ignored the issue until then, Liu finally moved against the Red Spears in September and brutally crushed the insurgency in two months. Liu remained in power until he was ousted by Han Fuju in course of a bitter war in 1932. Unlike any of the previous warlord rulers of eastern Shandong, Han actually proved to be relatively capable and popular as civilian administrator. Chu Yupu, on the other side, returned to Shandong soon after his exile to Korea, and was murdered. Accounts differ on how he died: According to some accounts, Liu Zhennian had him killed; others report that he was captured by vengeful peasants. These either buried him alive, or buried him up to his chin so that "black ants and the searing sun gave him the slow death he deserved". The head of the rebellion, Zhang Zongchang, continued to live a few more years in exile. He died in 1932, shot dead by the relative of an officer he had once executed.


References


Works cited

* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * {{Authority control 1929 protests Warlord Era Military history of the Republic of China (1912–1949) Conflicts in 1929 1929 in China Wars involving the Republic of China Military history of Shandong Rebellions in China