Wallace Craig
   HOME

TheInfoList



OR:

Wallace Craig (1876–1954) was an
American American(s) may refer to: * American, something of, from, or related to the United States of America, commonly known as the "United States" or "America" ** Americans, citizens and nationals of the United States of America ** American ancestry, pe ...
experimental psychologist Experimental psychology refers to work done by those who apply experimental methods to psychological study and the underlying processes. Experimental psychologists employ human participants and animal subjects to study a great many topics, in ...
and behavior scientist. He provided a conceptual framework for the study of behavior organization and is regarded as one of the founders of
ethology Ethology is the scientific study of animal behaviour, usually with a focus on behaviour under natural conditions, and viewing behaviour as an evolutionarily adaptive trait. Behaviourism as a term also describes the scientific and objectiv ...
. Craig experimentally studied the behavioral expression of
emotion Emotions are mental states brought on by neurophysiological changes, variously associated with thoughts, feelings, behavioral responses, and a degree of pleasure or displeasure. There is currently no scientific consensus on a definition. ...
, the way innate and learned behavioral tendencies are integrated, and how vocal as well as
social behavior Social behavior is behavior among two or more organisms within the same species, and encompasses any behavior in which one member affects the other. This is due to an interaction among those members. Social behavior can be seen as similar to an ...
s are organized. He encouraged a view of behavior as an integrated process with
evolution Evolution is change in the heritable characteristics of biological populations over successive generations. These characteristics are the expressions of genes, which are passed on from parent to offspring during reproduction. Variation ...
ary, motivational, experiential, social and ecological degrees of
freedom Freedom is understood as either having the ability to act or change without constraint or to possess the power and resources to fulfill one's purposes unhindered. Freedom is often associated with liberty and autonomy in the sense of "giving on ...
. This integrative perspective helped shape modern behavioral science.


Early life and education

Wallace Craig was born on July 20, 1876, in
Toronto Toronto ( ; or ) is the capital city of the Canadian province of Ontario. With a recorded population of 2,794,356 in 2021, it is the most populous city in Canada and the fourth most populous city in North America. The city is the ancho ...
,
Ontario Ontario ( ; ) is one of the thirteen provinces and territories of Canada.Ontario is located in the geographic eastern half of Canada, but it has historically and politically been considered to be part of Central Canada. Located in Central Ca ...
,
Canada Canada is a country in North America. Its ten provinces and three territories extend from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean and northward into the Arctic Ocean, covering over , making it the world's second-largest country by tot ...
, the son of Alexander Craig of
Edinburgh Edinburgh ( ; gd, Dùn Èideann ) is the capital city of Scotland and one of its 32 Council areas of Scotland, council areas. Historically part of the county of Midlothian (interchangeably Edinburghshire before 1921), it is located in Lothian ...
, a Scottish immigrant to the
United States The United States of America (U.S.A. or USA), commonly known as the United States (U.S. or US) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It consists of 50 states, a federal district, five major unincorporated territorie ...
, and Marion Brookes of
London London is the capital and largest city of England and the United Kingdom, with a population of just under 9 million. It stands on the River Thames in south-east England at the head of a estuary down to the North Sea, and has been a majo ...
, an Englishwoman. He married Mima Davis Jenness of
Sheffield Sheffield is a city status in the United Kingdom, city in South Yorkshire, England, whose name derives from the River Sheaf which runs through it. The city serves as the administrative centre of the City of Sheffield. It is Historic counties o ...
on October 12, 1904. Craig graduated from Hyde Park High School,
Chicago (''City in a Garden''); I Will , image_map = , map_caption = Interactive Map of Chicago , coordinates = , coordinates_footnotes = , subdivision_type = Country , subdivision_name ...
,
Illinois Illinois ( ) is a U.S. state, state in the Midwestern United States, Midwestern United States. Its largest metropolitan areas include the Chicago metropolitan area, and the Metro East section, of Greater St. Louis. Other smaller metropolita ...
, in 1895 and received both his Bachelor of Science degree (1898) and his Master of Science degree (1901) from the
University of Illinois The University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign (U of I, Illinois, University of Illinois, or UIUC) is a public land-grant research university in Illinois in the twin cities of Champaign and Urbana. It is the flagship institution of the University ...
. From 1901 he studied with Charles O. Whitman and received his PhD from the University of Chicago, Illinois (1908), for his research on
pigeon Columbidae () is a bird family consisting of doves and pigeons. It is the only family in the order Columbiformes. These are stout-bodied birds with short necks and short slender bills that in some species feature fleshy ceres. They primarily ...
behavior. Craig worked as a high school science teacher (1900, Harlan, Iowa; 1900–1901 Fort Collins, Colorado; 1904–1905 Coshocton, Ohio), as a university assistant in
zoology Zoology ()The pronunciation of zoology as is usually regarded as nonstandard, though it is not uncommon. is the branch of biology that studies the Animal, animal kingdom, including the anatomy, structure, embryology, evolution, Biological clas ...
(1901–1904, University of Chicago), and as a psychology and biology teacher (1905–1907, State Normal School, Valley City, North Dakota). In 1903 and 1906, he was a student at the
Marine Biological Laboratory The Marine Biological Laboratory (MBL) is an international center for research and education in biological and environmental science. Founded in Woods Hole, Massachusetts, in 1888, the MBL is a private, nonprofit institution that was independent ...
,
Woods Hole Woods Hole is a census-designated place in the town of Falmouth in Barnstable County, Massachusetts, United States. It lies at the extreme southwest corner of Cape Cod, near Martha's Vineyard and the Elizabeth Islands. The population was 781 at ...
,
Massachusetts Massachusetts (Massachusett language, Massachusett: ''Muhsachuweesut assachusett writing systems, məhswatʃəwiːsət'' English: , ), officially the Commonwealth of Massachusetts, is the most populous U.S. state, state in the New England ...
. After receiving his doctorate, Craig became a professor of philosophy at the
University of Maine The University of Maine (UMaine or UMO) is a Public university, public Land-grant university, land-grant research university in Orono, Maine. It was established in 1865 as the land-grant college of Maine and is the Flagship universities, flagshi ...
at Orono (1908–22). During this period Craig published most of his papers on the principles of behavior organization. These include a series of articles comparing the expression of emotions across different species of pigeons (1909–1911), articles on time keeping and behavioral synchronization (1916, 1917), as well as conceptual papers on appetites and aversions (1917, 1918) and on fighting (1921). The circumstances surrounding the end of Craig's appointment at the University of Maine are not clear; determinants may include both a progressive loss of hearing and dissatisfaction with collegiality and with research conditions.


Career and impact

After 1922, Craig's professional standing remained unstable. Thanks to support from
Gordon Allport Gordon Willard Allport (November 11, 1897 – October 9, 1967) was an American psychologist. Allport was one of the first psychologists to focus on the study of the personality, and is often referred to as one of the founding figures of personal ...
and James Woods of the Department of Philosophy and Psychology at
Harvard University Harvard University is a private Ivy League research university in Cambridge, Massachusetts. Founded in 1636 as Harvard College and named for its first benefactor, the Puritan clergyman John Harvard, it is the oldest institution of higher le ...
, Craig held various posts there until the mid-1930s (1922–1923, lecturer in psychology; 1923–1927,
biophysics Biophysics is an interdisciplinary science that applies approaches and methods traditionally used in physics to study biological phenomena. Biophysics covers all scales of biological organization, from molecular to organismic and populations. ...
librarian; various other posts). He was unable to procure an established academic position or regular research program until 1937. During this period, Craig and his wife lived in
Scotland Scotland (, ) is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. Covering the northern third of the island of Great Britain, mainland Scotland has a border with England to the southeast and is otherwise surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean to the ...
for two years. In the mid-1930s the American
ornithologist Ornithology is a branch of zoology that concerns the "methodological study and consequent knowledge of birds with all that relates to them." Several aspects of ornithology differ from related disciplines, due partly to the high visibility and th ...
Margaret Morse Nice instigated a contact with
Konrad Lorenz Konrad Zacharias Lorenz (; 7 November 1903 – 27 February 1989) was an Austrian zoologist, ethologist, and ornithologist. He shared the 1973 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine with Nikolaas Tinbergen and Karl von Frisch. He is often regarded ...
, an
Austrian Austrian may refer to: * Austrians, someone from Austria or of Austrian descent ** Someone who is considered an Austrian citizen, see Austrian nationality law * Austrian German dialect * Something associated with the country Austria, for example: ...
naturalist. Craig and Lorenz exchanged letters concerning key concepts of behavior such as
reflex In biology, a reflex, or reflex action, is an involuntary, unplanned sequence or action and nearly instantaneous response to a stimulus. Reflexes are found with varying levels of complexity in organisms with a nervous system. A reflex occurs ...
,
instinct Instinct is the inherent inclination of a living organism towards a particular complex behaviour, containing both innate (inborn) and learned elements. The simplest example of an instinctive behaviour is a fixed action pattern (FAP), in which a v ...
,
taxis A taxis (; ) is the movement of an organism in response to a stimulus such as light or the presence of food. Taxes are innate behavioural responses. A taxis differs from a tropism (turning response, often growth towards or away from a stimulu ...
,
tropism A tropism is a biological phenomenon, indicating growth or turning movement of a biological organism, usually a plant, in response to an environmental stimulus. In tropisms, this response is dependent on the direction of the stimulus (as oppose ...
, learning, as well as search, appetitive and aversive behavior. None of these letters has been located to date. Together with Craig's published work, in particular his 1918 essay on appetites and aversions, they were regarded by Lorenz as foundational for the development of
ethology Ethology is the scientific study of animal behaviour, usually with a focus on behaviour under natural conditions, and viewing behaviour as an evolutionarily adaptive trait. Behaviourism as a term also describes the scientific and objectiv ...
. A key insight was that much behavior is expressed not in response to, but in search of sensory input – or the lack of such input. With increasing appetite, animals engage in an undirected search for food, and only once located will the food stimuli be tracked down and consumption ensue. The role of learning in these processes is to provide ever more 'educated guesses' during the initial search phase. In an essay from 1954, Lorenz refers to this view of a three-step organization of behavior as the Craig–Lorenz schema. Craig used a notably broad definition of appetite (p. 91, Craig 1918): "An appetite (…) is a state of agitation which continues so long as a certain stimulus, which may be called the appeted
stimulus A stimulus is something that causes a physiological response. It may refer to: *Stimulation **Stimulus (physiology), something external that influences an activity **Stimulus (psychology), a concept in behaviorism and perception *Stimulus (economi ...
, is absent. When the appeted stimulus is at length received it stimulates a consummatory reaction, after which the appetitive behavior ceases and is succeeded by a state of relative rest". Likewise, he defined aversion as "a state of agitation which continues so long as a certain stimulus, referred to as the disturbing stimulus, is present; but which ceases, being replaced by a state of relative rest, when that stimulus has ceased to act on the sense-organs." One of the students of Lorenz, Monika Holzapfel, extended these notions to suggest that states of rest are goals of behavior (Holzapfel, 1940). Within his framework of appetites and aversions, Craig in his essay of 1921 described aggression as an aversion, in contrast to Lorenz, who regarded it as an appetite (Lorenz, 1966). From 1937, Craig worked as a temporary ornithologist at the
New York State Museum The New York State Museum is a research-backed institution in Albany, New York, United States. It is located on Madison Avenue, attached to the south side of the Empire State Plaza, facing onto the plaza and towards the New York State Capitol. ...
,
State University of New York The State University of New York (SUNY, , ) is a system of public colleges and universities in the State of New York. It is one of the largest comprehensive system of universities, colleges, and community colleges in the United States. Led by c ...
, Albany, with the support of the director of this institution, Charles C. Adams. By the end of this appointment Craig had finished a
monograph A monograph is a specialist work of writing (in contrast to reference works) or exhibition on a single subject or an aspect of a subject, often by a single author or artist, and usually on a scholarly subject. In library cataloging, ''monograph ...
on the organization and psychology of
bird song Bird vocalization includes both bird calls and bird songs. In non-technical use, bird songs are the bird sounds that are melodious to the human ear. In ornithology and birding, songs (relatively complex vocalizations) are distinguished by func ...
(1943). This monograph features an introduction by Adams and, despite being academic in character, an unusual preface by Craig directed at young ornithologists of the future. Adams, who had known and supported Craig since Craig's student days, mentions in his introduction that Craig had been interested in birds and bird song since boyhood and had a musical bent for the violin and flute. Funded by one-year grants from the
American Philosophical Society The American Philosophical Society (APS), founded in 1743 in Philadelphia, is a scholarly organization that promotes knowledge in the sciences and humanities through research, professional meetings, publications, library resources, and communit ...
(1944, 1945 and 1948) and by an appointment as a research fellow (1944–1947, supported by E.G. Boring and
Gordon Allport Gordon Willard Allport (November 11, 1897 – October 9, 1967) was an American psychologist. Allport was one of the first psychologists to focus on the study of the personality, and is often referred to as one of the founding figures of personal ...
), Craig returned to Harvard and worked on an essay on "The space system of the perceiving self". A 127-page manuscript of four chapters of this essay, which in a letter to Boring, Craig mentions having sent to the Society, has not been located to date. Craig retired from Harvard in 1947. He moved to Woods Hole, Massachusetts, in 1953 and died there on April 25, 1954. In retrospect, Craig appears one of the most insightful students of behavior of the 20th century. The reasons why his insights did not resonate more strongly with his contemporaries, with few exceptions, and why these insights did not secure him academic success continue to be discussed.


Publications by Wallace Craig

* 1902. Song in birds. Science, 15, 590–592. * 1902. Ecology. Science, 15, 793. * 1908. The voices of pigeons regarded as a means of social control. American Journal of Sociology, 14, 86–100. * 1909. The expressions of emotion in the pigeons: I. The blond ring dove. Journal of Comparative Neurology, 19, 29–80. * 1911a. Oviposition induced by the male in pigeons. Journal of Morphology, 22, 299–305. * 1911b. The expressions of emotion in the pigeons: II. The mourning dove. Auk, 28, 398–407. * 1911 c. The expressions of emotion in the pigeons: III. The passenger pigeon. Auk, 29, 408–427. * 1912a. Pigeons do not carry their eggs. Auk, 29, 392–393. * 1912b. Observations on doves learning to drink. Journal of Animal Behavior, 2, 273–279. * 1912c. Behavior of the young bird in breaking out of the egg. Journal of Animal Behavior, 2, 296–298. * 1913a. The stimulation and the inhibition of ovulation in birds and mammals. Journal of Animal Behavior, 3, 215–221. * 1913b. Recollections of the passenger pigeon in captivity. Bird Lore, 93–99. * 1914. Male doves reared in isolation. Journal of Animal Behavior, 4, 121–133. * 1916. Synchronism in the rhythmic activities of animals. Science, 44, 784–786. * 1917. On the ability of animals to keep time with an external rhythm. Journal of Animal Behavior, 7, 444–448. * 1917. Appetites and aversions as constituents of instincts. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (USA), 3, 685–688. * 1918. Appetites and aversions as constituents of instincts. Biological Bulletin, 34, 91–107. * 1919. Tropisms and instinctive activities. Psychological Bulletin, 16, 151–159. * 1920. Tropisms and instinctive activities. Psychological Bulletin, 17, 169–178. * 1921. Why do animals fight? International Journal of Ethics, 31, 264–278. * 1922. A note on Darwin's work on the expression of the emotions in man and animals. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 16, 256–266. * 1924. The dog as a detective. Scientific Monthly, IS, 38–47. * 1926. The twilight song of the wood pewee: A preliminary statement. Auk, 43, 150–152. * 1926. Request for the data on the twilight song of the wood pewee. Science, 63, 525. * 1933. The music of the wood pewee's song and one of its laws. Auk, SO, 174–178. * 1943. The song of the wood pewee Myiochanes virens Linnaeus: A study of bird music. New York State Museum Bulletin No. 334. Albany: University of the State of New York. * 1944. The twilight ceremonies of horseflies and birds. Science, 99, 125–126.


References


Further reading

* 1940. Holzapfel M: Triebbedingte Ruhezustände als Ziel von Appetenzhandlungen. Naturwissenschaften, 28, 273–280. * 1954. Lorenz K: Psychologie und Stammesgeschichte. In Heberer G (ed.) Die Evolution der Organismen. pp. 131–172. Jena: G. Fischer Verlag. * 1966. Lorenz K: On aggression (translated by M Latzke). London: Methuen. (original work in German published in 1963). * 1970a. Lorenz K: Companions as factors in the bird's environment. In K Lorenz Studies in human and animal behaviour (translated by R Martin). Vol. 1, pp. 101–258. London: Methuen. (original work in German published in 1935) * 1970b. Lorenz K: The establishment of the instinct concept. In K Lorenz Studies in human and animal behaviour (translated by R Martin). Vol. 1, pp. 259–315. London: Methuen. (original work in German published in 1937) * 1988. Burkhardt RW jr: Charles Otis Whitman, Wallace Craig, and the biological study of animal behavior in the United States, 1898–1925. In R Rainger, K Benson & J Maienschein (eds.) The American development of biology. pp. 185–218. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. * 1973. Lorenz K
Autobiography
Nobel Prize * 2008. Burkhardt RW jr

* The Library of the University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, holds a copy of Craig's unpublished BS thesis, "On the Early Stages of the Development of the Urogenital System of the Pig" (1898). * The Forbes Biological Station of the Illinois Natural History Survey at Havana, Illinois, holds a copy of Craig's unpublished MS thesis, "On the Fishes of the Illinois River System at Havana, Ill." (1901). {{DEFAULTSORT:Craig, Wallace 1876 births 1954 deaths 20th-century American psychologists Experimental psychologists