World literature is used to refer to the total of the world's national literature and the circulation of works into the wider world beyond their country of origin. In the past, it primarily referred to the masterpieces of Western European literature; however, world literature today is increasingly seen in an international context. Now, readers have access to a wide range of global works in various translations.
Many scholars assert that what makes a work considered world literature is its circulation beyond its country of origin. For example, Damrosch states, "A work enters into world literature by a double process: first, by being read as literature; second, by circulating out into a broader world beyond its linguistic and cultural point of origin". Likewise, the world literature scholar Venkat Mani believes that the "worlding" of literature is brought about by "
information transfer
In telecommunications, information transfer is the process of moving messages containing user information from a source to a sink via a communication channel. In this sense, information transfer is equivalent to data transmission which highlights ...
" largely generated by developments in print culture. Because of the advent of the library, "Publishers and booksellers who print and sell affordable books, literate citizens who acquire these books, and public libraries that make these books available to those who cannot afford to buy them collectively play a very important role in the "making" of world literature".
History
Johann Wolfgang Goethe
Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (28 August 1749 – 22 March 1832) was a German poet, playwright, novelist, scientist, statesman, theatre director, and critic. His works include plays, poetry, literature, and aesthetic criticism, as well as treatis ...
used the concept of Weltliteratur in several of his essays in the early decades of the nineteenth century to describe the international circulation and reception of literary works in Europe, including works of non-Western origin. The concept achieved wide currency after his disciple
Johann Peter Eckermann
Johann Peter Eckermann (21 September 1792 – 3 December 1854), German poet and author, is best known for his work '' Conversations with Goethe'', the fruit of his association with Johann Wolfgang von Goethe during the last years of Goethe's life ...
published a collection of conversations with Goethe in 1835.Johann Peter Eckermann, ''Gespräche mit Goethe in den letzten Jahren seines Lebens'', trans. John Oxenford as J. W. von Goethe, ''Conversations with Eckermann'', repr. North Point Press, 1994. Goethe spoke with Eckermann about the excitement of reading Chinese novels and Persian and Serbian poetry as well as of his fascination with seeing how his own works were translated and discussed abroad, especially in France. He made a famous statement in January 1827, predicting that world literature would replace the national literature as the major mode of literary creativity in the future:
Reflecting a fundamentally economic understanding of world literature as a process of trade and exchange,
Karl Marx
Karl Heinrich Marx (; 5 May 1818 – 14 March 1883) was a German philosopher, economist, historian, sociologist, political theorist, journalist, critic of political economy, and socialist revolutionary. His best-known titles are the 1848 ...
bourgeois
The bourgeoisie ( , ) is a social class, equivalent to the middle or upper middle class. They are distinguished from, and traditionally contrasted with, the proletariat by their affluence, and their great cultural and financial capital. Th ...
literary production, asserting that:
Martin Puchner has stated that Goethe had a keen sense of world literature as driven by a new world market in literature. This market-based approach was sought by Marx and Engels in 1848 through their ''Manifesto'' document, which was published in four languages and distributed among several European countries, and has since become one of the most influential texts of the twentieth century. While Marx and Engels followed Goethe in viewing world literature as a modern or future phenomenon, in 1886 the Irish scholar
H. M. Posnett
Hutcheson Macaulay Posnett (c. 1855 – 1927) was an Irish-New Zealand lawyer and scholar who was a pioneer in the field of comparative literature.
Posnett was born in Dublin, Ireland. He graduated from Trinity College in that city.Keith Sinclair' ...
argued that world literature first arose in ancient empires, such as the Roman Empire, long before the rise of the modern national literature. Today, world literature is understood to encompass classical works from all periods, including contemporary literature that is written for a global audience.
In the postwar era, the study of comparative and world literature was revived in the United States. Comparative literature was seen at the graduate level while world literature was taught as a first-year general education class. The focus remained largely on the Greek and Roman classics and the literature of major, modern Western-European powers, but a combination of factors in the late 1980s and early 1990s led to greater access to the world. The end of the Cold War, the growing globalization of the world economy, and new waves of immigration led to several efforts to expand the study of world literature. This change is illustrated by the expansion of ''The Norton Anthology of World Masterpieces'', whose first edition in 1956 featured only Western-European and North American works, to a new "expanded edition" in 1995 with non-Western selections. Major survey anthologies today, including those published by Longman, Bedford and Norton, showcase several hundred authors from dozens of countries.
Contemporary understandings
The explosive growth in the range of cultures studied under the rubric of world literature has inspired a variety of theoretical attempts to define the field and to propose effective modes of research and teaching. In his 2003 book ''What Is World Literature?'' David Damrosch understands world literature to be less of a vast collection of works and more a matter of circulation and reception. He proposed that works that thrive as world literature are ones that work well and even gain meaning through translation. Whereas Damrosch's approach remains tied to the close reading of individual works, a different view was taken by the Stanford critic Franco Moretti in a pair of articles offering "Conjectures on World Literature". Moretti believes that the scale of world literature exceeds what can be grasped by traditional methods of close reading, and advocates instead a mode of "distant reading" that would look at large-scale patterns as discerned from publication records and national literary histories.
Moretti's approach combined elements of evolutionary theory with the world-systems analysis pioneered by
Immanuel Wallerstein
Immanuel Maurice Wallerstein (; September 28, 1930 – August 31, 2019) was an American sociologist and economic historian. He is perhaps best known for his development of the general approach in sociology which led to the emergence of his wor ...
, an approach further discussed since then by Emily Apter in her influential book ''The Translation Zone''. Related to their world-systems approach is the work of French critic Pascale Casanova, ''La République mondiale des lettres'' (1999). Drawing on the theories of cultural production developed by the sociologist Pierre Bourdieu, Casanova explores the ways in which the works of peripheral writers must circulate into metropolitan centers in order to achieve recognition as being world literature.
The field of world literature continues to generate debate, with critics such as Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak arguing that too often the study of world literature in translation smooths out both the linguistic richness of the original and the political force a work can have in its original context. Other scholars, on the contrary, emphasize that world literature can and should be studied with close attention to original languages and contexts, even as works take on new dimensions and new meanings abroad.
World literature series are now being published in China and in Estonia, and a new Institute for World Literature, offering month-long summer sessions on theory and pedagogy, had its inaugural session at Peking University in 2011, with its next sessions at Istanbul Bilgi University in 2012 and at Harvard University in 2013. Since the middle of the first decade of the new century, a steady stream of works has provided materials for the study of the history of world literature and the current debates. Valuable collections of essays include:
*
Manfred Schmeling
''Manfred: A dramatic poem'' is a closet drama written in 1816–1817 by Lord Byron. It contains supernatural elements, in keeping with the popularity of the ghost story in England at the time. It is a typical example of a Gothic fiction.
Byr ...
, ''Weltliteratur Heute'' (1995)
*
Christopher Prendergast
Christopher is the English version of a Europe-wide name derived from the Greek name Χριστόφορος (''Christophoros'' or '' Christoforos''). The constituent parts are Χριστός (''Christós''), "Christ" or "Anointed", and φέρει ...
, ''Debating World Literature'' (2004)
* David Damrosch, ''Teaching World Literature'' (2009)
*
Theo D'haen
Theo is a given name and a hypocorism.
Greek origin
Many names beginning with the root "Theo-" derive from the Ancient Greek word ''theos'' (''θεός''), which means god, for example:
*Feminine names: Thea, Theodora, Theodosia, Theophania, ...
's co-edited collections ''The Routledge Companion to World Literature'' (2011) and ''World Literature: A Reader'' (2012).
Individual studies include:
*Moretti, ''Maps, Graphs, Trees'' (2005)
*John Pizer, ''The Idea of World Literature'' (2006),
*
Mads Rosendahl Thomsen Mads may refer to:
*Mads (given name)
*MADS Theatre, in England
* MADS-box, a family of genes and proteins
* Metadata Authority Description Schema
Metadata Authority Description Schema (MADS) is an XML schema developed by the United States Library ...
, ''Mapping World Literature'' (2008)
*Theo D'haen, ''The Routledge Concise History of World Literature'' (2011)
* Tötösy de Zepetnek, Steven, and Tutun Mukherjee, eds. ''Companion to Comparative Literature, World Literatures, and Comparative Cultural Studies'' (2013).
Publishers
American publishers neglect to publish the work of world literature. Surveys by the
National Endowment for the Arts
The National Endowment for the Arts (NEA) is an independent agency of the United States federal government that offers support and funding for projects exhibiting artistic excellence. It was created in 1965 as an independent agency of the federa ...
Literature Program showed that only 297 translated books were published in the United States, out of 13,000 works of fiction and poetry published in the United States in 1999. As of 2019, only 3% of all books published in the United States are works in translation, compared to Italy, where translations represent more than 50% of titles published. Among the literary magazines that dedicate to world literature is '' World Literature Today'' (founded in 1970), which sponsors The Neustadt award.
See also
Notes
Further reading
*Boruszko, Graciela, and Steven Tötösy de Zepetnek, eds "New Work about World Literatures". Special Issue ''CLCWeb: Comparative Literature and Culture'' 15.6 (2013)]
*Casanova, Pascale. ''The World Republic of Letters''. Trans. M. B. DeBevoise. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2004.
*D'haen, Theo. ''The Routledge Concise History of World Literature''. London: Routledge, 2011.
*D'haen, Theo, David Damrosch, and Djelal Kadir, eds. ''The Routledge Companion to World Literature''. London: Routledge, 2011.
*D'haen, Theo César Domínguez and Mads Rosendahl Thomsen, eds. ''World Literature: A Reader''. London: Routledge, 2012.
*Damrosch, David. ''How to Read World Literature''. London: Blackwell, 2009.
*Damrosch, David. ''What Is World Literature?'' Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2003.
*Damrosch, David, April Alliston, Marshall Brown, Page duBois, Sabry Hafez, Ursula K. Heise, Djelal Kadir, David L. Pike, Sheldon Pollock, Bruce Robbins, Haruo Shirane, Jane Tylus, and Pauline Yu, eds. ''The Longman Anthology of World Literature''. New York: Pearson Longman, 2009. 6 Vols.
*Davis, Paul, John F. Crawford, Gary Harrison, David M. Johnson, and Patricia Clark Smith, eds. ''The Bedford Anthology of World Literature''. New York: Bedford/St. Martin's, 2004. 6 Vols. Domínguez, César"Gualterio Escoto: A Writer across World-Literatures" ''Translation and World Literature''. Ed. Susan Bassnett. London: Routledge, 2019. 75–91.
*Goßens, Peter. ''Weltliteratur. Modelle transnationaler Literaturwahrnehmung im 19. Jahrhundert''. Stuttgart: J.B. Metzler, 2011.
*Hashmi, Alamgir. ''The Commonwealth, Comparative Literature, and the World''. Islamabad: Indus Books, 1988.
*Juvan, Marko, ed "World Literatures from the Nineteenth to the Twenty-first Century" Special Issue ''CLCWeb: Comparative Literature and Culture'' 15.5 (2013)
*Juvan, Marko. Worlding a Peripheral Literature '. Singapore: Palgrave Macmillan, 2019. .
*Lawall, Sarah, ed. ''Reading World Literature: Theory, History, Practice''. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1994.
*Pizer, John. ''The Idea of World Literature: History and Pedagogical Practice''. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2006.
*Prendergast, Christopher, ed. ''Debating World Literature''. London: Verso, 2004.
*Puchner, Martin, Suzanne Conklin Akbari, Wiebke Denecke, Vinay Dharwadker, Barbara Fuchs,
Caroline Levine
Caroline Levine (born December 12, 1970) is an American literary critic. She is the David and Kathleen Ryan Professor of Humanities at Cornell University. Her published works are in the fields of Victorian literature, literary theory, literary cr ...
, Sarah Lawall, Pericles Lewis, and Emily Wilson, eds. ''The Norton Anthology of World Literature''. New York: W. W. Norton, 2012. Six vols.
*Rothenberg, Jerome, and Pierre Joris, eds. ''Poems for the Millennium: A Global Anthology''. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998. 2 Vols.
*Sturm-Trigonakis, Elke. ''Comparative Cultural Studies and the New Weltliteratur''. West Lafayette: Purdue University Press, 2013.
*Tanoukhi, Nirvana. "The Scale of World Literature". New Literary History 39.3 (2008).
*Thomsen, Mads Rosendahl. ''Mapping World Literature: International Canonization and Transnational Literatures''. London: Continuum, 2008.
*Tötösy de Zepetnek, Steven Multilingual Bibliography of (Text)Books in Comparative Literature, World Literature(s), and Comparative Cultural Studies" ''CLCWeb: Comparative Literature and Culture'' (''Library'') (March 1, 1999; updated 2020)
*Tötösy de Zepetnek, Steven, and Tutun Mukherjee, eds. ''Companion to Comparative Literature, World Literatures, and Comparative Cultural Studies''. New Delhi: Cambridge University Press India, 2013.
*Vipper, Yuri B. "A Fundamental Study of the History of World Literature". USSR Academy of Sciences: ''Social Sciences'' Vol. XVI, No. 1, 1985 pp. 84–93.
*Vipper, Yuri B. "National Literary History in History of World Literature: Theoretical Principles of Treatment". ''New Literary History'' Vol. 16, No. 3, On Writing Histories of Literature (Spring 1985), pp. 545–558. .