![British Museum Aztec woman](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bf/British_Museum_Aztec_woman.jpg)
Women in Aztec civilization shared some equal opportunities.
Aztec civilization
The Aztecs () were a Mesoamerican culture that flourished in central Mexico in the post-classic period from 1300 to 1521. The Aztec people included different ethnic groups of central Mexico, particularly those groups who spoke the Nahuatl l ...
saw the rise of a military culture that was closed off to women and made their role more prescribed to domestic and reproductive labor and less equal. The status of Aztec women in society was further altered in the 15th century, when Spanish conquest forced European norms onto the indigenous culture. However, many pre-Columbian norms survived and their legacy still remains.
History
The status of Aztec women has changed throughout the history of the civilization. As emphasis on warfare increased, notions of egalitarianism became less important.
Marriage
Aztec marriage practices were similar to those of other
Mesoamerican
Mesoamerica is a historical region and cultural area in southern North America and most of Central America. It extends from approximately central Mexico through Belize, Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, and northern Costa Rica. Withi ...
civilizations such as the
Maya
Maya may refer to:
Civilizations
* Maya peoples, of southern Mexico and northern Central America
** Maya civilization, the historical civilization of the Maya peoples
** Maya language, the languages of the Maya peoples
* Maya (Ethiopia), a populat ...
. Aztecs married at a later age, during their late teens and early twenties.
Aztec marriages were initiated by the parents of the potential groom. After consulting with the extended kinship group, the parents would approach a professional
matchmaker ( nci, ah atanzah), who would approach the potential bride's family. The parents of the young woman would advise the matchmaker whether or not they accepted the proposal. Brides were expected to be virgins before marriage, as young people of both sex were advised to be celibate.
The marriage celebration was a four-day event, and the wedding ceremony took place on the first day. The bride would wear fine robes. Her kinswomen would decorate her arms and legs with red feathers, and paint her face with a paste containing small shimmering crystals. The ceremony would take place at the house of the groom's parents. A fire would be lit in the hearth, and incense would be burned as an offering to the gods. The groom's parents would give presents (robes and mantles) to the bride's parents. The ritual for finalizing the marriage involved the matchmaker tying the groom's cape to the bride's skirt, and then the groom's mother would give the bride and groom each four mouthfuls of tamales. Four days of feasting followed the ceremony.
For the purpose of political, military or economic alliances marriages among Aztec nobles were arranged. For example, when
Cosijoeza
Cosijoeza, Cocijoeza o Cosiioeza ( Zapotec: Gzio'za'a or Kosi'ioeza) (1450–1504) was a Coquitao (King in Zapotec) of Zaachila (the kingdom not to be confused with the homonymous city), its name in Zapotec means "Storm of obsidian knives" or "t ...
married
Ahuitzotl
Ahuitzotl ( nah, āhuitzotl, ) was the eighth Aztec ruler, the '' Huey Tlatoani'' of the city of Tenochtitlan, son of princess Atotoztli II. His name literally means "Water Thorny" and was also applied to the otter. It is also theorized that mo ...
's daughter to seal the alliance between the Aztecs and the
Zapotecs in 1496. Aztec kings reportedly had dozens of wives and many children. However,
polygamy
Crimes
Polygamy (from Late Greek (') "state of marriage to many spouses") is the practice of marrying multiple spouses. When a man is married to more than one wife at the same time, sociologists call this polygyny. When a woman is married ...
was only a practice among the nobles of Aztec civilization; the majority of the population were monogamous.
Pregnancy, childbirth, and the tlamatlquiticitl
One of the few positions of power women could hold in Aztec society was that of the tlamatlquiticitl, or the
midwife
A midwife is a health professional who cares for mothers and newborns around childbirth, a specialization known as midwifery.
The education and training for a midwife concentrates extensively on the care of women throughout their lifespan; co ...
. These women were proficient in dealing with difficulties arising during pregnancy and labour but as most of the information we have about their practices is passed on from upper class Aztec men and the Spanish conquerors, much of the traditional knowledge has been lost.
A tlamatlquiticitl attended every pregnant woman, no matter status or class, although women of higher status often had more than one attend them. The tlamatlquiticitl was essential to assisting in birth, and additionally to providing
prenatal care
Prenatal care, also known as antenatal care, is a type of preventive healthcare. It is provided in the form of medical checkups, consisting of recommendations on managing a healthy lifestyle and the provision of medical information such as materna ...
advice.
The
Florentine Codex
The ''Florentine Codex'' is a 16th-century ethnographic research study in Mesoamerica by the Spanish Franciscan friar Bernardino de Sahagún. Sahagún originally titled it: ''La Historia General de las Cosas de Nueva España'' (in English: ''The ...
outlines much of the advice the tlamatlquiticitl gave to expecting mothers. The mother was advised to engage in sex with her husband during the first few months of the pregnancy so as to help the child develop, but around the seventh or eighth month she was to abstain.
If she did not it was believed that the semen may act like glue and the baby would not come out, or if it did it would be feeble with misshaped fingers and toes and covered in what looks like
atole
''Atole'' (, from Nahuatl '' ātōlli'' ), also known as ''atolli'' and ''atol de elote'', is a traditional hot corn- and masa-based beverage of Mexican origin. Chocolate ''atole'' is known as ''champurrado'' or ''atole''. It typically accomp ...
so that everyone would see how the couple could not abstain, and they would be shamed.
The expecting mother was also told she must avoid prolonged periods in the sweat bath, for too much heat was thought to roast the child and it would be stuck inside the womb; however, too much heat specifically around the abdomen area would cause the child to swell and suffer from the heat. Chewing
chicle
Chicle () is a natural gum traditionally used in making chewing gum and other products. It is collected from several species of Mesoamerican trees in the genus ''Manilkara'', including '' M. zapota'', '' M. chicle'', '' M. staminodella'', and '' ...
was not allowed otherwise the baby would be born with perforated lips and would not be able to suckle or eat.
[de Sahagún 1969, p. 155.] Likewise if she ate earth or chalk the child would be in poor health.
[de Sahagún 1969, p. 156.] The tlamatlquiticitl knew that the baby took nourishment from the mother and so what she ate it would absorb; if she fasted the child would starve.
Because of this the mother was to eat and drink well, even after the birth.
The mother was also warned not to look at anything red otherwise the child would extend crosswise, making for a complicated delivery.
She was not allowed to observe lunar eclipses, otherwise the child would be born with a cleft palate.
Eclipses were also associated with miscarriages.
And she was also not to look at anything that would frighten or anger her lest she should harm the child.
Walking around late at night was avoided otherwise the child would cry incessantly.
If the mother took naps during the day the tlamatlquiticitl warned that the child would be born with unusually large eyelids.
Lifting heavy objects was also associated with damaging the fetus.
The tlamatlquiticitl also told others that the expectant mother should not be in want of anything, all her desires should be fulfilled quickly otherwise the child would suffer.
Not only did the tlamatlquiticitl provide this advice but she also attended and took over household duties for the expectant mother towards the end of the pregnancy.
This support, in combination with the advice on stress management, such as avoiding stressful relationships, and the suggestion to not lift heavy objects or overwork themselves, helped to contribute to the healthy psychological development of their children.
The woman would know when it was almost time for her delivery as she would feel discomfort in her womb a few days prior. Because the tlamatlquiticitl resided in the house, the mother was well prepared for the birth. If the child presented in
breech position
A breech birth is when a baby is born bottom first instead of head first, as is normal. Around 3–5% of pregnant women at term (37–40 weeks pregnant) have a breech baby. Due to their higher than average rate of possible complications for the ...
the tlamatlquiticitl, who was skilled in massage, would take the mother into a sweat bath and massage the womb to turn the baby around.
The typical position for labour was squatting, as gravity would assist as the child was being pushed out.
To induce labour the tlamatlquiticitl would at first give the mother
Montanoa tomentosa
''Montanoa tomentosa'' is a species of flowering plant in the family Asteraceae which is native to Mexico and much of Central America. Its local common name is zoapatle. This small yellow-flowered shrub is best known for its use in traditional h ...
, and failing that, they would then administer a drink made from possum tail, that was shown to prompt contractions. In modern clinical trials, many of these mixtures have been proven to have induced contractions. However the Spanish Friars believed these concoctions to be witchcraft, and since both ritualistic and natural elements were used by the tlamatlquiticitl, the Spanish decided the tlamatlquiticitl was evil and the colonizers eradicated these practices.
The act of birthing was considered a battle and the tlamatlquiticitl would give the mother a miniature shield and spear for the fight. When the baby was born, the midwife would make a series of battle cries, praising the mother who had fought through her labour to deliver the baby. The tlamatlquiticitl would cut the
umbilical cord
In placental mammals, the umbilical cord (also called the navel string, birth cord or ''funiculus umbilicalis'') is a conduit between the developing embryo or fetus and the placenta. During prenatal development, the umbilical cord is physiologic ...
which connects the child to its mother and the gods, and it would be dried.
After the
placenta
The placenta is a temporary embryonic and later fetal organ that begins developing from the blastocyst shortly after implantation. It plays critical roles in facilitating nutrient, gas and waste exchange between the physically separate mater ...
came out it was taken and buried in a corner of the house by the tlamatlquiticitl. Then the preserved umbilical cords were buried, and according to the Spanish accounts, they would be buried near a battlefield if the child was a boy or beneath the hearth if it was a girl, to indicate their futures.
[Eberl 2013, p. 466.] According to the birthing almanacs such as the
Codex Yoalli Ehēcatl the umbilical cord was planted to ensure the relationship between the gods and child.
If the child died in childbirth, the tlamatlquiticitl would employ an
obsidian
Obsidian () is a naturally occurring volcanic glass formed when lava extrusive rock, extruded from a volcano cools rapidly with minimal crystal growth. It is an igneous rock.
Obsidian is produced from felsic lava, rich in the lighter elements s ...
knife to remove the fetus in pieces so as not to harm the mother.
[de Sahagún 1969, p. 157.] The tlamatlquiticitl warned the mother not to be trouble by the loss of her child otherwise the spirit of the child would suffer.
Scholars argue, with evidence based in
bioarcheology, that this same method was also used to perform abortions, although they were generally frowned upon.
[Schwartz 2018, p. 29.] The life of the mother was the priority over saving the fetus if the situation was life-threatening, and if the mother was at risk, then the fetus would be dismembered so she would survive.
Women who died during childbirth were given the same honour as a soldier who was slain in battle, and were portrayed as spirits known as
cihuateteo
In Aztec mythology, the Cihuateteo (; nci, Cihuātēteoh, in singular ) or "Divine Women", were the malevolent spirits of women who died in childbirth. They were likened to the spirits of male warriors who died in violent conflict, because chi ...
.
After delivery the tlamatlquiticitl would remain in the house so as to help the mother and monitor her milk supply. Since the child would not begin weaning until after 24 months, this was an important process.
[Schwartz 2018, p. 26.] These four days of monitoring also were to ensure a speedy recovery of the mother, and so the tlamatlquiticitl would prepare baths and meals for her. After this period, the bathing ceremony would take place.
The
Codex Mendoza
The Codex Mendoza is an Aztec codex, believed to have been created around the year 1541. It contains a history of both the Aztec rulers and their conquests as well as a description of the daily life of pre-conquest Aztec society. The codex is wri ...
depicts the bathing ceremony, which was conducted by the tlamatlquiticitl, four days after the birth. The child was washed in an
earthenware
Earthenware is glazed or unglazed nonvitreous pottery that has normally been fired below . Basic earthenware, often called terracotta, absorbs liquids such as water. However, earthenware can be made impervious to liquids by coating it with a ce ...
tub on a rush mat and on each side were symbols, one for boys and the other for girls.
For girls the three objects had to do with homemaking: a basket, a broom, and a
spindle
Spindle may refer to:
Textiles and manufacturing
* Spindle (textiles), a straight spike to spin fibers into yarn
* Spindle (tool), a rotating axis of a machine tool
Biology
* Common spindle and other species of shrubs and trees in genus ''Euony ...
.
[Ross 1978, p. 70.] And there were five objects for boys, which had to do with male professions: an obsidian blade representing a featherworker, a brush for a
scribe
A scribe is a person who serves as a professional copyist, especially one who made copies of manuscripts before the invention of automatic printing.
The profession of the scribe, previously widespread across cultures, lost most of its promi ...
, an
awl that carpenters work with, a tool used by goldsmiths, and shields with a bow and arrow for a warrior. The tlamatlquiticitl circled around the mat counter-clockwise with the child, washed the child, and then shouted out the name she has chosen for the child as she presented it to the gods.
The water she used to cleanse the outside and inside of the body does not serve the same symbolic function that it does in a Christian baptism, but rather it is used to arouse the spirit of the child and let the gods in. The Codex Yoallo Ehēcatl depicts this bathing ceremony as performed by the gods, and but it is understood that the tlamatlquiticitl impersonated the gods while performing these rituals because they so closely resemble what is depicted. For example, the Yoallo Ehēcatl shows images of the gods presenting the children as well as cutting the umbilical cord. After the ceremony the tlamatlquiticitl would swaddle the child and give a speech to the mother on how valiantly she had fought and how it was time for rest.
[de Sahagún 1969, p. 179.] Kinsmen were then invited to see the child and praise the mother, which concluded a successful birth.
Women and labor
Women mainly worked inside the home, spinning and weaving thread from cotton, henepen, or maquey
agave
''Agave'' (; ; ) is a genus of monocots native to the hot and arid regions of the Americas and the Caribbean, although some ''Agave'' species are also native to tropical areas of North America, such as Mexico. The genus is primarily known for ...
. They used a handheld drop spindle, then wove cloth using a loom that they strapped to their backs and held in their laps. They were responsible for tending turkeys and dogs that were raised for meat. Extra cloth, vegetables or other items were taken by women to the nearest market to be sold or bartered for a needed item.
One of the most important roles of Aztec women in the home was to prepare
maize flour
Maize flour or corn flour is a flour ground from dried maize (corn).Herbst, Sharon, ''Food Lover's Companion'', Third Edition, Pg. 165, Barrons Educational Series Inc, 2001 It is a common staple food, and is ground to coarse, medium, and fine c ...
for making
tortilla
A tortilla (, ) is a thin, circular unleavened flatbread originally made from maize hominy meal, and now also from wheat flour. The Aztecs and other Nahuatl speakers called tortillas ''tlaxcalli'' (). First made by the indigenous peoples of Me ...
s, an important tradition for Mexican families today. Dried maize was soaked in lime water, a process known as
nixtamalization
Nixtamalization () is a process for the preparation of corn, or other grain, in which the grain is soaked and cooked in an alkaline solution, usually limewater (but sometimes aqueous alkali metal carbonates), washed, and then hulled. The ter ...
, and the nixtamalized grains ground. As part of Aztec etiquette, men ate before women.
Women had a number of other professions in Aztec civilization, including priest, doctor, sorcerer. Women were often recognized in their civilization as professional weavers and crafters.
Images in
Aztec codices
Aztec codices ( nah, Mēxihcatl āmoxtli , sing. ''codex'') are Mesoamerican manuscripts made by the pre-Columbian Aztec, and their Nahuatl-speaking descendants during the colonial period in Mexico.
History
Before the start of the Sp ...
, ceramics and sculptures display the elaborate and colorful designs of Aztec weavers. There were regional textile specialties, with associated graphic designs. Most designs were geometric, with some regions specializing in textiles with animal and plant images. Cotton was generally used, and dyes came from blue clays, yellow ochres, and red came from insects living in nopal cacti. Purple was derived from the sea snail ''
Purpura patula
''Plicopurpura patula'' is a species of sea snail, a marine gastropod mollusk in the family Muricidae
Muricidae is a large and varied taxonomic family of small to large predatory sea snails, marine gastropod mollusks, commonly known as mure ...
'', similar to how the
Phoenicians
Phoenicia () was an ancient Semitic-speaking peoples, ancient thalassocracy, thalassocratic civilization originating in the Levant region of the eastern Mediterranean, primarily located in modern Lebanon. The territory of the Phoenician city-st ...
also derived purple dye used for royal robes from snails.
Unlike the men, Aztec women were not forced to participate in the military.
They were not put into military school as young children like all of their male counterparts. This meant that while women were denied access to one of the largest sources of wealth and prestige within Aztec society, they were less likely to be killed in battle.
Spanish rule
![Blowing on maize](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/69/Blowing_on_maize.jpg)
The Spanish
conquest of Aztec territories decreased much of the indigenous population through warfare and foreign disease, such as smallpox, for which the Aztecs had no immunities. The surviving population was confronted by profound attacks upon their culture in the form of Spanish institutions such as the Roman Catholic religion.
As early as 1529, the Spanish began coercively converting Aztecs to Catholicism. They focused on the Aztec nobility initially, to create an example for the other Aztecs to follow. Nobles such as Quetzalmacatzin, King of Amaquemecan (
Chalco), were forced to choose one wife and abandon the others, to comply with the current Christian institution of marriage, which meant monogamy. Aztec polygamous arrangements, with secondary wives and children, were not legally recognized by the Spanish, who considered such women and children illegitimate and disinherited from claims to ranks or property. This also tore apart the political and economic fabric of Aztec culture, since noble marriages were made with political and territorial claims in mind.
Working demands became harsh for women after the Spanish arrived and the
encomienda
The ''encomienda'' () was a Spanish labour system that rewarded conquerors with the labour of conquered non-Christian peoples. The labourers, in theory, were provided with benefits by the conquerors for whom they laboured, including military ...
s were created. Aztec communities had already lost many men to war and epidemics, and the encomiendas meant that more men worked outside of their villages for the
encomendero
The ''encomienda'' () was a Spanish labour system that rewarded conquerors with the labour of conquered non-Christian peoples. The labourers, in theory, were provided with benefits by the conquerors for whom they laboured, including military ...
s. Traditional gender-based divisions of labour became irrelevant. Women no longer had men to do plowing, and were left to do all the agricultural tasks themselves, which included the planting and harvesting, as well as growing enough produce to meet the tribute demands of the encomiendas. . Over several generations, many young women left the rural areas to work as domestic servants or as market vendors in the cities. By the 17th century, Andean women were the majority of the market vendors in colonial cities such as
La Paz
La Paz (), officially known as Nuestra Señora de La Paz (Spanish pronunciation: ), is the seat of government of the Bolivia, Plurinational State of Bolivia. With an estimated 816,044 residents as of 2020, La Paz is the List of Bolivian cities ...
(Bolivia),
Cuzco
Cusco, often spelled Cuzco (; qu, Qusqu ()), is a city in Southeastern Peru near the Urubamba Valley of the Andes mountain range. It is the capital of the Cusco Region and of the Cusco Province. The city is the seventh most populous in Peru; ...
(Peru), and
Quito
Quito (; qu, Kitu), formally San Francisco de Quito, is the capital and largest city of Ecuador, with an estimated population of 2.8 million in its urban area. It is also the capital of the province of Pichincha. Quito is located in a valley o ...
(Ecuador).
When the Spanish eventually set up industrial textile mills, they had only men working in the mills. The new Spanish culture prohibited women working outside of their home as their priority was to raise children.
References
{{Portal, Mesoamerica, Mexico
Aztec society
History of the Aztecs
Ancient women by region