The Woman's Peace Party (WPP) was an American

pacifist Pacifism is the opposition or resistance to war, militarism (including conscription and mandatory military service) or violence. Pacifists generally reject theories of Just War. The word ''pacifism'' was coined by the French peace campaign ...

and

feminist Feminism is a range of socio-political movements and ideologies that aim to define and establish the political, economic, personal, and social equality of the sexes. Feminism incorporates the position that society prioritizes the male po ...

organization formally established in January 1915 in response to

World War I World War I (28 July 1914 11 November 1918), often abbreviated as WWI, was one of the deadliest global conflicts in history. Belligerents included much of Europe, the Russian Empire, the United States, and the Ottoman Empire, with fightin ...

. The organization is remembered as the first American peace organization to make use of

direct action Direct action originated as a political activist term for economic and political acts in which the actors use their power (e.g. economic or physical) to directly reach certain goals of interest, in contrast to those actions that appeal to oth ...

tactics such as public demonstration. The Woman's Peace Party became the American section of an international organization known as the International Committee of Women for Permanent Peace later in 1915, a group which later changed its name to the

Women's International League for Peace and Freedom The Women's International League for Peace and Freedom (WILPF) is a non-profit non-governmental organization working "to bring together women of different political views and philosophical and religious backgrounds determined to study and make kno ...

American Pacifist Forerunners

Prior to the establishment of the Woman's Peace Party, the three leading American pacifist organizations of national stature were essentially

conservative Conservatism is a cultural, social, and political philosophy that seeks to promote and to preserve traditional institutions, practices, and values. The central tenets of conservatism may vary in relation to the culture and civilization i ...

enterprises, viewing the peace movement's mission as one of extending stability, order, and the expansion of venerable American institutions.C. Roland Marchand, ''The American Peace Movement and Social Reform, 1898-1918.'' Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1972; pg. 182. The

American Peace Society The American Peace Society is a pacifist group founded upon the initiative of William Ladd, in New York City, May 8, 1828. It was formed by the merging of many state and local societies, from New York, Maine, New Hampshire, and Massachusetts, of ...

(BBC), established in 1828, was the oldest of the previously existing pacifist organizations and suffered from what one historian has called "over seven decades of accumulated Victorianism.Marchand, ''The American Peace Movement and Social Reform, 1898-1918,'' pg. 5. Typified by the detached conservative nobility of corporate attorney

Elihu Root Elihu Root (; February 15, 1845February 7, 1937) was an American lawyer, Republican politician, and statesman who served as Secretary of State and Secretary of War in the early twentieth century. He also served as United States Senator from N ...

, the APS was dedicated to demonstrating the incompatibility between war and

Christianity Christianity is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth. It is the world's largest and most widespread religion with roughly 2.38 billion followers representing one-third of the global pop ...

and throughout its existence had remained small, impoverished, and ineffectual. By the time of World War I, it had been reduced in status to that of a veritable subsidiary of the

Carnegie Endowment for International Peace The Carnegie Endowment for International Peace (CEIP) is a nonpartisan international affairs think tank headquartered in Washington D.C. with operations in Europe, South and East Asia, and the Middle East as well as the United States. Founded in ...

. The Carnegie Endowment was launched by

industrialist A business magnate, also known as a tycoon, is a person who has achieved immense wealth through the ownership of multiple lines of enterprise. The term characteristically refers to a powerful entrepreneur or investor who controls, through perso ...

Andrew Carnegie Andrew Carnegie (, ; November 25, 1835August 11, 1919) was a Scottish-American industrialist and philanthropist. Carnegie led the expansion of the American steel industry in the late 19th century and became one of the richest Americans i ...

in 1910 with a $10 million endowment.Marchand, ''The American Peace Movement and Social Reform, 1898-1918,'' pg. 101. The Endowment became effectively a university publishing house for the peace movement, concentrating on academic research and the printed word rather than oratory.Marchand, ''The American Peace Movement and Social Reform, 1898-1918,'' pg. 102. The third of the primary American peace organizations of the first decade of the 20th century was the

World Peace Foundation The World Peace Foundation or WPF, created in 1910, is a philanthropic foundation for research into peace processes affiliated with The Fletcher School of Law and Diplomacy at Tufts University. Alex de Waal is the director , having become directo ...

(WPF), a group established in 1909 by millionaire Boston publisher

Edwin Ginn Edwin Ginn (February 14, 1838 – January 21, 1914) was an American publisher, peace advocate and philanthropist. Biography Ginn was born in Orland, Maine, on February 14, 1838, into a Universalist farming family who were descendants of early se ...

as "Edwin Ginn's International School for Peace." This organization was launched with a $1 million endowment and carried on publishing activities, changing its name to the WPF in 1911. As with the Carnegie Foundation, the WPF limited its activities largely to research and publication, attempting to influence political decision-makers with ideas rather than to stir the fires of popular sentiment. Much like the trustified world of big business of the day, the peace movement was characterized by

interlocking directorate Interlocking directorate refers to the practice of members of a corporate board of directors serving on the boards of multiple corporations. A person that sits on multiple boards is known as a ''multiple director''.Scott, 1997p. 7/ref> Two fir ...

s of the various organizations, with a very few men and no women wielding decisive influence over the movement by virtue of the power of the pocketbook. The American peace movement was, in short, part of the

political establishment ''The Establishment'' is a term used to describe a dominant group or elite that controls a polity or an organization. It may comprise a closed social group that selects its own members, or entrenched elite structures in specific institutions. ...

, with dinner meetings of the New York Peace Society likened by one contemporary to "a banquet of the

Chamber of Commerce A chamber of commerce, or board of trade, is a form of business network. For example, a local organization of businesses whose goal is to further the interests of businesses. Business owners in towns and cities form these local societies to ad ...

Woman's Peace Parade

Although the establishment of a permanent organization did not follow for more than four months, the roots of the Woman's Peace Party lay in a protest march of 1,500 women in

New York City New York, often called New York City or NYC, is the List of United States cities by population, most populous city in the United States. With a 2020 population of 8,804,190 distributed over , New York City is also the L ...

on August 29, 1914. This "Woman's Peace Parade" was organized less than a month after the outbreak of hostilities in World War I and featured a silent procession down

Fifth Avenue Fifth Avenue is a major and prominent thoroughfare in the borough of Manhattan in New York City. It stretches north from Washington Square Park in Greenwich Village to West 143rd Street in Harlem. It is one of the most expensive shopping stre ...

behind a white banner bearing a dove in front of somber crowds lining the streets. The chair of the Woman's Peace Parade committee was

Fanny Garrison Villard Helen Frances “Fanny” Garrison Villard (December 16, 1844 – July 5, 1928) was an American women's suffrage campaigner, pacifist and a co-founder of National Association for the Advancement of Colored People. She was the daughter of promin ...

, a 70-year-old veteran of the peace movement.Marchand, ''The American Peace Movement and Social Reform, 1898-1918,'' pg. 189. Her son,

Oswald Garrison Villard Oswald Garrison Villard (March 13, 1872 – October 1, 1949) was an American journalist and editor of the ''New York Evening Post.'' He was a civil rights activist, and along with his mother, Fanny Villard, a founding member of the NAACP. I ...

, later recalled the scene:

"There were no bands; there was dead silence and the crowds watched the parade in the spirit of the marchers, with sympathy and approval. The President had also approved, for the organizers, in complete sympathy with his public statements of the early days of the conflict, had courteously asked him for his consent. He was especially pleased by the decision of the paraders to carry no flags except the peace flag and to have no set speeches at the conclusion of the parade, but brief informal addresses were made to all who would listed....

"The silence, the dignity, the black dresses of the marchers — those who did not have black dresses wore black arm bands — the solemnity of the crowds, all of these produced a profound effect on the beholders."

The Woman's Peace Parade marked a change of methods of the peace movement. Older American peace organizations limited themselves to working behind the scenes, attempting to influence policy through regular political channels.Marchand, ''The American Peace Movement and Social Reform, 1898-1918,'' pg. 183. The Peace Parade, on the other hand, made use of

, attempting to build popular support for peace through public demonstration in the same way that labor organizations had historically fought for policies and settlements which were important to them. With this tactical shift, the Woman's Peace Parade and the organization which emerged from it, the Woman's Peace Party, effectively marked the beginning of the modern peace movement. In the aftermath of the march, Fanny Garrison Villard sought to transform the temporary organization constructed to coordinate the march into a permanent group. Villard called upon one of her old rivals in the women's movement,

Carrie Chapman Catt Carrie Chapman Catt (; January 9, 1859 Fowler, p. 3 – March 9, 1947) was an American women's suffrage leader who campaigned for the Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, which gave U.S. women the right to vote in 1920. Catt ...

, President of the

International Woman Suffrage Alliance The International Alliance of Women (IAW; french: Alliance Internationale des Femmes, AIF) is an international non-governmental organization that works to promote women's rights and gender equality. It was historically the main international org ...

to help in this regard. Catt, a former associate of

Susan B. Anthony Susan B. Anthony (born Susan Anthony; February 15, 1820 – March 13, 1906) was an American social reformer and women's rights activist who played a pivotal role in the women's suffrage movement. Born into a Quaker family committed to s ...

, was fixated upon the struggle for women's right to vote and did not see the peace march as a likely vehicle for a change of public sentiment or national policy. Still, Catt was won over to the idea that the American suffrage movement stood to gain in support and stature if women could gain a prominent role in the noble struggle for an end to the European bloodbath. In the middle of December 1914, Catt was finally persuaded to give full effort for the launch of a national women's peace organization.Marchand, ''The American Peace Movement and Social Reform, 1898-1918,'' pg. 193. She wrote to settlement worker

Jane Addams Laura Jane Addams (September 6, 1860 May 21, 1935) was an American settlement activist, reformer, social worker, sociologist, public administrator, and author. She was an important leader in the history of social work and women's suffrage ...

Hull House Hull House was a settlement house in Chicago, Illinois, United States that was co-founded in 1889 by Jane Addams and Ellen Gates Starr. Located on the Near West Side of the city, Hull House (named after the original house's first owner Cha ...

in Chicago, attempting to bring her into the forthcoming organization as its leader. Addams had long believed in a close interrelationship between international peace, domestic humanitarian reform, and women's right to vote and was won over to the idea of a national women's peace movement. The stage was set for a formal launch of the new organization — a group to be called the Woman's Peace Party.

Foundation convention

The Woman's Peace Party was established at an organizational convention held in

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on January 9–10, 1915."A Woman's Peace Party Full Fledged for Action," ''The Survey,'' vol. 33, no. 17 (January 23, 1915), pp. 433-434. The gathering was attended by more than 100 delegates representing women's organizations from around the United States. Jane Addams was elected President of the new organization by the convention and given the power to select a Secretary and Treasurer for the group, which was to be headquartered in Addams' home city of

Chicago (''City in a Garden''); I Will , image_map = , map_caption = Interactive Map of Chicago , coordinates = , coordinates_footnotes = , subdivision_type = Country , subdivision_name ...

. Membership in the new organization was open to all groups willing to repurpose themselves also as a "peace circle" and to any woman paying a $1 annual membership fee. Officers ultimately included Lucia Ames Mead as National Secretary, Harriet P. Thomas as Executive Secretary, Sophonisba P. Breckinridge as Treasurer, and

Elizabeth Glendower Evans Elizabeth Glendower Evans (February 28, 1856 – December 12, 1937) was an American social reformer and suffragist. Life Evans née Gardiner was born on February 28, 1856, in New Rochelle, New York. She inherited a significant amount of money ...

as National Organizer.Eleanor Barr
"Woman's Peace Party, 1915-20 Finding Aid: Historical Introduction,"
Women's International League for Peace and Freedom Collection DG043, Swarthmore College Library, Swarthmore, PA. The convention approved a platform calling for the immediate convocation of "a convention of

neutral Neutral or neutrality may refer to: Mathematics and natural science Biology * Neutral organisms, in ecology, those that obey the unified neutral theory of biodiversity Chemistry and physics * Neutralization (chemistry), a chemical reaction in ...

nations in the interest of an early peace," the limitation of armaments, organized opposition to

militarism Militarism is the belief or the desire of a government or a people that a state should maintain a strong military capability and to use it aggressively to expand national interests and/or values. It may also imply the glorification of the mili ...

(or

military intervention Interventionism refers to a political practice of intervention, particularly to the practice of governments to interfere in political affairs of other countries, staging military or trade interventions. Economic interventionism refers to a diff ...

) in America, democratization of foreign policy, removal of the economic motivation for war, and the expansion of the electoral franchise for women. The right of women to vote was seen by the female participants in the organization as part-and-parcel of the cause for peace, based on the presumption that women were inclined by nature to be oriented towards the nurturing of human life.Marchand, ''The American Peace Movement and Social Reform, 1898-1918,'' pg. 186. The founding convention also approved a supplemental "Program for Constructive Peace" which demanded that the American government to call a conference of neutral nations and declared that, failing that, "the party itself will call an unofficial conference of pacifists from the world over" to determine a course of action. To ensure that the current war was not merely a prelude for another, the program called for a peace based upon no transfers of territory without the will of the involved people, no indemnities to be assessed outside those in accordance with international law, and no treaties between nations to be established without ratification of representatives of the people. Activities concluded with a mass meeting held in the ballroom of the New Willard Hotel on Sunday, January 10, which was filled to capacity. An additional overflow meeting was held in another room but still some 500 interested people had to be turned away for lack of space. Speeches were delivered to this gathering by Jane Addams, and

activists

Emmeline Pethick-Lawrence Emmeline Pethick-Lawrence, Baroness Pethick-Lawrence (; 21 October 1867 – 11 March 1954) was a British women's rights activist and suffragette. Early life Pethick-Lawrence was born in Bristol as Emmeline Pethick. Her father, Henry Pethick, w ...

of England,

Rosika Schwimmer Rosika Schwimmer ( hu, Schwimmer Rózsa; 11 September 1877 – 3 August 1948) was a Hungarian-born pacifist, feminist, world federalist, and women's suffragist. A co-founder of the Campaign for World Government with Lola Maverick Lloyd, her ra ...

of Hungary, among others.

1915 International Congress of Women

The ongoing war in Europe forced the cancellation of the scheduled biennial convention of the

, which had been slated for

Berlin Berlin ( , ) is the capital and largest city of Germany by both area and population. Its 3.7 million inhabitants make it the European Union's most populous city, according to population within city limits. One of Germany's sixteen constitue ...

in 1915.Dee Garrison, ''Mary Heaton Vorse: The Life of an American Insurgent.'' Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1989; pg. 88. The cancellation of the German gathering provided an opportunity for the women's peace movement to hold an international gathering of their own, and a call was issued for a convention to be held in the neutral

Netherlands ) , anthem = ( en, "William of Nassau") , image_map = , map_caption = , subdivision_type = Sovereign state , subdivision_name = Kingdom of the Netherlands , established_title = Before independence , established_date = Spanish Netherl ...

. Jane Addams, President of the Woman's Peace Party and arguably the most respected and influential woman in America was invited to preside over the conclave. In April 1915, 47 women, including many members of the Woman's Peace Party along with representatives of other organizations, boarded the Dutch cruise ship the ''MS Noordam'' for the dangerous journey to

The Hague The Hague ( ; nl, Den Haag or ) is a city and municipality of the Netherlands, situated on the west coast facing the North Sea. The Hague is the country's administrative centre and its seat of government, and while the official capital of ...

.Harriet Hyman Alonso, ''Peace as a Women's Issue: A History of the US Movement for World Peace and Women's Rights.'' Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1993; pg. 66. Among those making the trip through mine-strewn waters were social worker

Grace Abbott Grace Abbott (November 17, 1878 – June 19, 1939) was an American social worker who specifically worked in improving the rights of immigrants and advancing child welfare, especially the regulation of child labor. Her elder sister, Edith Abbott ...

epidemiologist Epidemiology is the study and analysis of the distribution (who, when, and where), patterns and risk factor, determinants of health and disease conditions in a defined population. It is a cornerstone of public health, and shapes policy decision ...

Alice Hamilton Alice Hamilton (February 27, 1869Corn, JHamilton, Alice''American National Biography'' – September 22, 1970) was an American physician, research scientist, and author. She was a leading expert in the field of occupational health and a pioneer ...

, radical trade unionist Leonora O'Reilly, and academic and future

Nobel Peace Prize The Nobel Peace Prize is one of the five Nobel Prizes established by the will of Swedish industrialist, inventor and armaments (military weapons and equipment) manufacturer Alfred Nobel, along with the prizes in Nobel Prize in Chemistry, Chemi ...

winner

Emily Balch Emily Greene Balch (January 8, 1867 – January 9, 1961) was an American economics, economist, sociologist and Pacifism, pacifist. Balch combined an academic career at Wellesley College with a long-standing interest in social issues such as pov ...

. The trip was not without controversy, despite America's formally neutral status, with former President

Theodore Roosevelt Theodore Roosevelt Jr. ( ; October 27, 1858 – January 6, 1919), often referred to as Teddy or by his initials, T. R., was an American politician, statesman, soldier, conservationist, naturalist, historian, and writer who served as the 26t ...

declaring the women's mission "silly and base"" and calling the women cowards who sought peace "without regard to righteousness." The American women were not dissuaded, sailing into danger with a homemade blue and white banner that bore the single word, "PEACE." The ''Noordam'' was held up for four days in the

English Channel The English Channel, "The Sleeve"; nrf, la Maunche, "The Sleeve" (Cotentinais) or ( Jèrriais), (Guernésiais), "The Channel"; br, Mor Breizh, "Sea of Brittany"; cy, Môr Udd, "Lord's Sea"; kw, Mor Bretannek, "British Sea"; nl, Het Kana ...

by the

Royal Navy The Royal Navy (RN) is the United Kingdom's naval warfare force. Although warships were used by English and Scottish kings from the early medieval period, the first major maritime engagements were fought in the Hundred Years' War against F ...

but was ultimately allowed to proceed to The Hague, which it arrived barely in time for the start of the three-day congress on the evening of April 28, 1915.Garrison, ''Mary Heaton Vorse,'' pg. 91. Despite the decision of some combatant nations, such as Great Britain, to deny its citizens passports which would have allowed them to participate in the Congress, the gathering still proved to be a massive event, bringing together 1,136 delegates and more than 2,000 visitors. The congress drafted a series of resolutions detailing plans for a just peace, calling for general

disarmament Disarmament is the act of reducing, limiting, or abolishing weapons. Disarmament generally refers to a country's military or specific type of weaponry. Disarmament is often taken to mean total elimination of weapons of mass destruction, such as n ...

and the removal of the profit motive through nationalizing the production of armaments, and asserting the benefits of

free trade Free trade is a trade policy that does not restrict imports or exports. It can also be understood as the free market idea applied to international trade. In government, free trade is predominantly advocated by political parties that hold econo ...

and

freedom of navigation Freedom of navigation (FON) is a principle of law of the sea that ships flying the flag of any sovereign state shall not suffer interference from other states, apart from the exceptions provided for in international law. In the realm of internat ...

on the high seas.Garrison, ''Mary Heaton Vorse,'' pg. 92. A resolution calling for continuous

mediation Mediation is a structured, interactive process where an impartial third party neutral assists disputing parties in resolving conflict through the use of specialized communication and negotiation techniques. All participants in mediation are ...

of disputes by a conference of neutral nations was passed, but ultimately failed to come to fruition. A delegation headed by Addams was dispatched to the capitals of the belligerent powers but it, too, proved ineffectual. Before adjourning, the congress established a new international organization called the International Committee of Women for Permanent Peace. The Woman's Peace Party came to regard itself as the American section of this organization.

Name change

In 1921 the International Committee of Women for Permanent Peace formally changed its name to the Women's International League for Peace and Freedom.

Legacy

An archive of the records of the Woman's Peace Party from 1915 to 1920 resides at

Swarthmore College Swarthmore College ( , ) is a Private college, private Liberal arts colleges in the United States, liberal arts college in Swarthmore, Pennsylvania. Founded in 1864, with its first classes held in 1869, Swarthmore is one of the earliest coeduca ...

Swarthmore, Pennsylvania Swarthmore ( , ) is a borough in Delaware County, Pennsylvania. Swarthmore was originally named "Westdale" in honor of noted painter Benjamin West, who was one of the early residents of the town. The name was changed to "Swarthmore" after the es ...

as part of its Peace Collection.Finding Aid for the Woman's Peace Party Collection, 1915-1920
Swarthmore College Peace Collection DG043, Swarthmore, PA.

Prominent members

Fannie Fern Andrews Fannie Fern Andrews (Phillips) (1867–1950) was an American lecturer, teacher, social worker, and writer. Biography Fannie Fern and Frank Edward Phillips were twins, born on 25 September 1867 at Middleton, Annapolis (Nova Scotia) to Anni ...

* Sophonisba P. Breckenridge *

Laura Clay Laura Clay (February 9, 1849June 29, 1941), co-founder and first president of the Kentucky Equal Rights Association, was a leader of the American women's suffrage movement. She was one of the most important suffragists in the South, fav ...

* Alice Lorraine Daly *

Crystal Eastman Crystal Catherine Eastman (June 25, 1881 – July 28, 1928) was an American lawyer, antimilitarist, feminist, socialist, and journalist. She is best remembered as a leader in the fight for women's suffrage, as a co-founder and co-editor with ...

Charlotte Perkins Gilman Charlotte Perkins Gilman (; née Perkins; July 3, 1860 – August 17, 1935), also known by her first married name Charlotte Perkins Stetson, was an American humanist, novelist, writer, lecturer, advocate for social reform, and eugenicist. She wa ...

Jessie Wallace Hughan Jessie Wallace Hughan (December 25, 1875 – April 10, 1955) was an American educator, a socialist activist, and a radical pacifist. During her college days she was one of four co-founders of Alpha Omicron Pi, a national fraternity for university ...

Hannah Clothier Hull Hannah Hallowell Clothier Hull (July 21, 1872 – July 4, 1958) was an American clubwoman, feminist, and pacifist, one of the founders and leaders of the Women's Peace Party and the Women's International League for Peace and Freedom. Early life ...

Florence Kelley Florence Moltrop Kelley (September 12, 1859 – February 17, 1932) was a social and political reformer and the pioneer of the term wage abolitionism. Her work against sweatshops and for the minimum wage, eight-hour workdays, and children's rig ...

Freda Kirchwey Mary Frederika "Freda" Kirchwey (September 26, 1893 – January 3, 1976) was an American journalist, editor, and publisher strongly committed throughout her career to liberal causes (anti-Fascist, pro-Soviet, anti-anti-communist). From 1933 t ...

* Fola La Follette * Lucia Ames Mead *

Jeannette Rankin Jeannette Pickering Rankin (June 11, 1880 – May 18, 1973) was an American politician and women's rights advocate who became the first woman to hold federal office in the United States in 1917. She was elected to the U.S. House of Representat ...

Rose Schneiderman Rose Schneiderman (April 6, 1882 – August 11, 1972) was a Polish-born American socialist and feminist, and one of the most prominent female labor union leaders. As a member of the New York Women's Trade Union League, she drew attention to u ...

Anna Howard Shaw Anna Howard Shaw (February 14, 1847 – July 2, 1919) was a leader of the women's suffrage movement in the United States. She was also a physician and one of the first ordained female Methodist ministers in the United States. Early life Shaw ...

* Harriet P. Thomas *

Mary Heaton Vorse Mary Heaton Vorse (October 11, 1874 – June 14, 1966) was an American journalist and novelist. She established her reputation as a journalist reporting the labor protests of a largely female and immigrant workforce in the east-coast textile indus ...

Lillian Wald Lillian D. Wald (March 10, 1867 – September 1, 1940) was an American nurse, humanitarian and author. She was known for contributions to human rights and was the founder of American community nursing. She founded the Henry Street Settlement in N ...

* Anna Walling

Footnotes

External links

Swarthmore College Library, Swarthmore, PA. {{DEFAULTSORT:Woman's Peace Party Feminist organizations in the United States Human rights organizations based in the United States Opposition to World War I Peace organizations based in the United States Pacifist feminism Political parties established in 1915 Women's political advocacy groups in the United States History of women in New York City

American Pacifist Forerunners

Woman's Peace Parade

Foundation convention

1915 International Congress of Women

Name change

Legacy

Prominent members

See also

Footnotes

Further reading

Historiography and memory

Primary sources

External links