A pack is a social group of

conspecific Biological specificity is the tendency of a characteristic such as a behavior or a biochemical variation to occur in a particular species. Biochemist Linus Pauling stated that "Biological specificity is the set of characteristics of living organ ...

canines Canine may refer to: Zoology and anatomy * a dog-like Canid animal in the subfamily Caninae ** ''Canis'', a genus including dogs, wolves, coyotes, and jackals ** Dog, the domestic dog * Canine tooth, in mammalian oral anatomy People with the surn ...

. Packs aren't formed by all canines, especially small sized canines like the

Red fox The red fox (''Vulpes vulpes'') is the largest of the true foxes and one of the most widely distributed members of the Order (biology), order Carnivora, being present across the entire Northern Hemisphere including most of North America, Europe ...

. The number of members in a pack and their social behavior varies from species to species. Social structure is very important in a pack. Every pack member will have a position and a role to play. Canine packs are led by a breeding pair, consisting of the

alpha male In biology, a dominance hierarchy (formerly and colloquially called a pecking order) is a type of social hierarchy that arises when members of animal social groups interact, creating a ranking system. A dominant higher-ranking individual is som ...

and the

alpha female Marie Kristin Gabert (June 4, 1982) is a German professional wrestler and former professional powerlifter, strongwoman, bodybuilder, and mixed martial artist under the names Alpha Female and Jazzy Gabert. She is best known on the independent scene ...

Pack behavior in specific species

African wild dogs The African wild dog (''Lycaon pictus''), also called the painted dog or Cape hunting dog, is a wild canine which is a native species to sub-Saharan Africa. It is the largest wild canine in Africa, and the only extant member of the genus '' Lyc ...

(''Lycaon pictus'') live and hunt in packs. Males assist in raising the pups, and remain with their pack for life, while the females leave their birth pack at about the age of two and a half years old to join a pack with no females. Males outnumber the females in a pack, and usually only one female is present to breed with all males. African wild dogs are not

territorial A territory is an area of land, sea, or space, particularly belonging or connected to a country, person, or animal. In international politics, a territory is usually either the total area from which a state may extract power resources or a ...

, and they hunt cooperatively in their packs, running down large game and tearing it apart. They cooperate in caring for wounded and sick pack members as well as their young.

Gray wolves The wolf (''Canis lupus''; : wolves), also known as the gray wolf or grey wolf, is a large canine native to Eurasia and North America. More than thirty subspecies of ''Canis lupus'' have been recognized, and gray wolves, as popularly u ...

(''Canis lupus'') usually live in packs that consist of the adult parents and their offspring of perhaps the last 2 or 3 years. The adult parents are usually unrelated and other unrelated wolves may sometimes join the pack. Wolves usually hunt in packs, but they hunt alone in the spring and summer months when there is plenty of prey available. They are found in both

Eurasia Eurasia (, ) is the largest continental area on Earth, comprising all of Europe and Asia. Primarily in the Northern and Eastern Hemispheres, it spans from the British Isles and the Iberian Peninsula in the west to the Japanese archipelago a ...

and

North America North America is a continent in the Northern Hemisphere and almost entirely within the Western Hemisphere. It is bordered to the north by the Arctic Ocean, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean, to the southeast by South America and the Car ...

Black-backed jackal The black-backed jackal (''Lupulella mesomelas),'' also called the silver-backed jackal, is a medium-sized canine native to eastern and southern Africa. These regions are separated by roughly 900 kilometers. One region includes the southe ...

s (''Canis mesomelas'') in

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and

Eastern Africa East Africa, Eastern Africa, or East of Africa, is the eastern subregion of the African continent. In the United Nations Statistics Division scheme of geographic regions, 10-11-(16*) territories make up Eastern Africa: Due to the historical ...

and

coyote The coyote (''Canis latrans'') is a species of canis, canine native to North America. It is smaller than its close relative, the wolf, and slightly smaller than the closely related eastern wolf and red wolf. It fills much of the same ecologica ...

s (''Canis latrans'') in North America have a single long-term mate, but usually hunt alone or in pairs. Both parents care for the young, and the parents and their current offspring are the pack. They occasionally cooperate in larger packs to hunt large game. The

Ethiopian wolf The Ethiopian wolf (''Canis simensis''), also called the Simien jackal and Simien fox, is a canine native to the Ethiopian Highlands. In southeastern Ethiopia it is also known as the horse jackal. It is similar to the coyote in size and build ...

(''Canis simensis'') pack members hunt for rodents alone and come together mainly to defend their territory from rival packs.

Corsac fox The corsac fox (''Vulpes corsac''), also known simply as a corsac, is a medium-sized fox found in steppes, semi-deserts and deserts in Central Asia, ranging into Mongolia and northern China. Since 2004, it has been classified as ''least concern ...

es sometimes form packs, unlike some other fox species.

Pack behavior in grey wolves

Wolves are pack animals known for forming affiliative bonds within the pack hierarchy. Wolves in packs are known for playing with one another. It has been observed that the playing between wolves are not random: it may be a reflection of the relationships present in the pack, reflecting any tension, cooperation, and competition present. Tensions are noted to become higher around breeding season where the cost and benefits are weighed against each other. Female wolves are known for being the main initiators of affiliative interactions, though a small percentage of males will initiate affiliative interactions. The omega male is not a target of any affiliative interaction. In other studies, researchers have separated the most dominant wolf from the most subordinate wolves. It was recorded that the dominant wolf spent less time sleeping and showed more behavioral stress compared to the omega wolf. The dominant wolf was reported to rest in the section of his enclosure closest to his pack. Furthermore, researchers noted that younger, more subordinate wolves appear to have less attachment to their pack compared to their higher ranking compatriots. Wolves' cooperation is essential for tasks such as hunting and protecting young, though the level of attachment present in the pack are not necessarily equal. The majority of wolves are known for dispersing from their birth pack; this makes measuring attachment behavior within the packs difficult. Though there are cases in which wolves leave their pack, typically when accompanying siblings of the same sex. This behavior is suggested to be a form of adaptive behavior that benefits both pack mates in future conflict. All individuals benefit from being a member of the wolf pack; the weak are supported by the efforts of stronger wolves, and higher ranking individuals enjoy better and larger kills than could be taken on their own. Protection is granted by sheer number, and larger, more plentiful territory can be won and sustained. Care and protection of young is shared, and knowledge can be passed down through generations, creating a unique culture within each group The pack is typically a nuclear family unit. It often consists of 5–10 (though in areas of high prey abundance can be up to 20) mostly related individuals, specifically consisting of a typically unrelated breeding pair also known as the alphas, their offspring, and occasionally a handful of other wolves which can be related or not.PDF available at wolf.org
/ref> Membership may be fluid and is subject to change. Outside wolves may be shunned or, more rarely, accepted, depending on the specific circumstances. Genetic variability can become limited within such an interrelated group, and so conditions for gene flow must exist. Outside wolves can provide these opportunities. A pack may be accepting of another wolf into their group if it is a distant relative, if reproduction rates are low due to loss or infertility of an alpha, or if their numbers are significantly reduced. Characterization of wolves into dominance hierarchies of alpha, beta, and omega were based on behavioral studies of unrelated wolves in captivity, and this assemblage largely does not apply to natural wolf packs, which are familial units.

The lone wolf

These singular outside wolves, often referred to as lone wolves, are vulnerable to food scarcity and territorial attacks, and generally comprise less than 15% of the total wolf population. Lone wolves usually result from sexually mature offspring leaving their parental pack, though may also occur if harassed subordinates chose to disperse. In times of prey scarcity, low ranking wolves may choose to go off on their own if the pack cannot supply sufficient food. These lone wolves may then attempt to join into an existing wolf pack or, more commonly, find a mate and begin a new pack family as the alphas.

The breeding pair ("alphas")

Within the wolf pack, the breeding pair or the dominant breeding pair (in packs with multiples breeders), often referred to in familiar language as the "alpha pair" or the "alphas wolves", are typically the wolves in the family unit which breed and produce offspring; they are the matriarch and patriarch of the family. It was previously believed to be common for an aging or sick alpha to be replaced by one of their offspring, but more recent studies have shown this incestuous behavior to be very rare.

The pups

Importance of the alpha is rivaled only by that of the pups. The fundamental purpose of the pack is the successful production of offspring, and so raising of the litter is a collaborative venture – all members contribute to their development. In times of scarcity, the breeding pair will often prioritize the care of the pups, and preferentially feed the youngest wolves first. Despite this committed involvement, pup mortality is high, with researchers citing that only roughly 30% survive their first year of life. Those who survive, however, grow up with the added advantage of being surrounded by numerous care-takers and teachers. There exists a culture within wolf packs, and this is passed on to the offspring by the elders of the group. Pups learn something from each member of the pack, and attain the vital social skills required to create those powerful bonds upon which wolf societal structure relies.

Dominance and the "alpha wolf"

Animals which typically predominate over others are associated with the term ''alpha''. Among pack-living wolves, alpha wolves are the genetic parents of most cubs in the pack. Such access to mating females creates strong selective pressure for intra-sex competition. Wolves show deference to the alpha pair in their pack by allowing them to allocate the distribution of food, typically preferentially feeding the youngest wolves. Wolves use

eye contact Eye contact occurs when two people look at each other's eyes at the same time. In humans, eye contact is a form of nonverbal communication and can have a large influence on social behavior. Coined in the early to mid-1960s, the term came from t ...

and posture as an indicator of dominance or submission, which are largely age-based; these postures are rare except in relation to food, as described previously. The smaller and more nuclear a pack is, the status of alpha is less likely to be obtained through fighting, and young wolves instead leave the pack to find a mate and produce offspring of their own. Larger or less-nuclear packs may operate differently and possess more complex and flexible social structures. In the case of other wild canids, the alpha male may not have exclusive access to the alpha female; moreover, other pack members may guard the

maternity den A maternity den, in the animal kingdom, is a lair where the mother gives birth and nurtures the young, when they are in a vulnerable life stage. While such dens are typically subterranean, they may also be snow caves or simply beneath rock ledges ...

used by the alpha female; as with the

African wild dog The African wild dog (''Lycaon pictus''), also called the painted dog or Cape hunting dog, is a wild canine which is a native species to sub-Saharan Africa. It is the largest wild canine in Africa, and the only extant member of the genus '' Ly ...

, ''Lycaon pictus''. As dominant roles may be deemed normal among social species with extended parenting, it has been suggested that the additional term ''alpha'' is not required merely to describe dominance due to its ubiquity, but should be reserved for where they are the predominant pack progenitor. For instance, wolf biologist

L. David Mech Lucyan David Mech (; born January 18, 1937), also known as Dave Mech, is an American biologist specializing in the study of wolves. He is a senior research scientist for the U.S. Geological Survey and an adjunct professor at the University of Min ...

stated:

...calling a wolf an ''alpha'' is usually no more appropriate than referring to a human parent or a doe deer as an ''alpha''. Any parent is dominant to its young offspring, so ''alpha'' adds no information. Why not refer to an alpha female as the ''female parent'', the ''breeding female'', the ''matriarch'', or simply the ''mother''? Such a designation emphasizes not the animal's dominant status, which is trivial information, but its role as pack progenitor, which is critical information. The one use we may still want to reserve for ''alpha'' is in the relatively few large wolf packs multiple litters. ... In such cases the older breeders are probably dominant to the younger breeders and perhaps can more appropriately be called the ''alphas''. ... The point here is not so much the terminology but what the terminology falsely implies: a rigid, force-based dominance hierarchy.

Use in dog training

One of the most persistent but disputed theories in dog training literature is the idea of the ''

alpha wolf Alpha Wolf refer to: * Alpha (ethology), about the leader of a group of animals * Alpha Wolf (band), an Australian nu metalcore band formed in 2013 * Alpha Wolf (pickup truck), an upcoming American compact electric pickup truck * El Hijo de Canis L ...

'', an individual gray wolf who uses body language and, when needed, physical force to maintain its dominance within the wolf pack. The idea was first reported in early wolf research. It was subsequently adopted by dog trainers. Later research has disputed the theory, pointing out that it was based on the behavior of captive packs consisting of unrelated individuals, while in nature a pack is usually made up by members of a family. The term ''alpha'' was popularized as early as 1976 in the dog training book ''How to Be Your Dog's Best Friend'' (Monks of New Skete), which introduced the idea of the ''

alpha roll The alpha roll is a dog training technique that is considered outdated by many modern-day dog trainers. The theory behind the training method is that dogs are hierarchical animals. The technique is used to teach the dog that the trainer or owner ...

'', a technique for punishing unwanted dog behaviours. Psychologist and dog trainer

Stanley Coren Stanley Coren (born 1942) is a psychology professor, neuropsychological researcher and writer on the intelligence, mental abilities and history of dogs. He works in research and instructs in psychology at the University of British Columbia in Va ...

in the 2001 book ''How to Speak Dog'' wrote, "You are the alpha dog... You must communicate that you are the pack leader and dominant". It has been suggested that the use of such techniques may have more to do with human psychology than with dog behavior; "dominance hierarchies and dominance disputes and testing are a fundamental characteristic of all social groups... But perhaps only we humans learn to use punishment primarily to gain for ourselves the reward of being dominant. Most leading veterinary and animal behavior associations, and most contemporary trainers would agree, advocating the use of rewards to teach commands and encourage good communication between owners and their pets. Many modern practices dictate the abandonment of outdated "pack" methods. Some canine behaviorists suggest that kind, efficient training uses games to teach commands which can be utilised to benefit the owner's everyday life.

References

{{Authority control Dogs Wolves Dog training and behavior