The Wilhelmine Period () comprises the period of
German history
The Germani tribes i.e. Germanic tribes are now considered to be related to the Jastorf culture before expanding and interacting with the other peoples.
The concept of a region for Germanic tribes is traced to time of Julius Caesar, a Roman gen ...
between 1890 and 1918, embracing the reign of
Kaiser
''Kaiser'' is the German word for "emperor" (female Kaiserin). In general, the German title in principle applies to rulers anywhere in the world above the rank of king (''König''). In English, the (untranslated) word ''Kaiser'' is mainly ap ...
Wilhelm II
Wilhelm II (Friedrich Wilhelm Viktor Albert; 27 January 18594 June 1941) was the last German Emperor (german: Kaiser) and King of Prussia, reigning from 15 June 1888 until his abdication on 9 November 1918. Despite strengthening the German Empir ...
in the
German Empire
The German Empire (),Herbert Tuttle wrote in September 1881 that the term "Reich" does not literally connote an empire as has been commonly assumed by English-speaking people. The term literally denotes an empire – particularly a hereditary ...
from the resignation of Chancellor
Otto von Bismarck
Otto, Prince of Bismarck, Count of Bismarck-Schönhausen, Duke of Lauenburg (, ; 1 April 1815 – 30 July 1898), born Otto Eduard Leopold von Bismarck, was a conservative German statesman and diplomat. From his origins in the upper class of J ...
until the end of World War I and Wilhelm's abdication during the
November Revolution.
It affected the society, politics,
culture
Culture () is an umbrella term which encompasses the social behavior, institutions, and norms found in human societies, as well as the knowledge, beliefs, arts, laws, customs, capabilities, and habits of the individuals in these groups.Tyl ...
, art and architecture of Germany and roughly coincided with the
Belle Époque
The Belle Époque or La Belle Époque (; French for "Beautiful Epoch") is a period of French and European history, usually considered to begin around 1871–1880 and to end with the outbreak of World War I in 1914. Occurring during the era ...
era of Western Europe.
Overview
The term "Wilhelminism" (''Wilhelminismus'') is not meant as a conception of society associated with the name Wilhelm and traceable to an intellectual initiative of the
German Emperor
The German Emperor (german: Deutscher Kaiser, ) was the official title of the head of state and hereditary ruler of the German Empire. A specifically chosen term, it was introduced with the 1 January 1871 constitution and lasted until the offi ...
. Rather, it relates to the image presented by Wilhelm II and his demeanour, as manifested by the public presentation of grandiose
military parades
A military parade is a formation of soldiers whose movement is restricted by close-order manoeuvering known as drilling or marching. The military parade is now almost entirely ceremonial, though soldiers from time immemorial up until the lat ...
and self-aggrandisement on his part. The latter tendency had already been noticed by his grandfather, Emperor
Wilhelm I
William I or Wilhelm I (german: Wilhelm Friedrich Ludwig; 22 March 1797 – 9 March 1888) was King of Prussia from 2 January 1861 and German Emperor from 18 January 1871 until his death in 1888. A member of the House of Hohenzollern, he was the f ...
, while the latter's father, later
Frederick III, was Crown Prince.
Wilhelminism also characterizes the social and cultural climate of Wilhelm II's reign of Wilhem's, which found expression in rigidly-
conservative
Conservatism is a cultural, social, and political philosophy that seeks to promote and to preserve traditional institutions, practices, and values. The central tenets of conservatism may vary in relation to the culture and civilization i ...
attitudes relying on the
Prussian Junker
The Junkers ( ; ) were members of the landed nobility in Prussia. They owned great estates that were maintained and worked by peasants with few rights. These estates often lay in the countryside outside of major cities or towns. They were an impor ...
landowners and associated in the
German Agrarian League
The ''Bund der Landwirte'' (Agrarian League) (BDL) was a German advocacy group founded 18 February 1893 by farmers and agricultural interests in response to the farm crisis of the 1890s, and more specifically the result of the protests against the ...
. That resembled the
Victorian era
In the history of the United Kingdom and the British Empire, the Victorian era was the period of Queen Victoria's reign, from 20 June 1837 until her death on 22 January 1901. The era followed the Georgian period and preceded the Edwardia ...
in the United Kingdom. The period was distinguished by an extraordinary belief in
progress
Progress is the movement towards a refined, improved, or otherwise desired state. In the context of progressivism, it refers to the proposition that advancements in technology, science, and social organization have resulted, and by extension wi ...
, which contributed to the enormous prosperity of the highly-industrialised German Empire but was at odds with its
social conservatism
Social conservatism is a political philosophy and variety of conservatism which places emphasis on traditional power structures over social pluralism. Social conservatives organize in favor of duty, traditional values and social institutio ...
. Although Otto von Bismarck's
Anti-Socialist Laws
The Anti-Socialist Laws or Socialist Laws (german: Sozialistengesetze; officially , approximately "Law against the public danger of Social Democratic endeavours") were a series of acts of the parliament of the German Empire, the first of which was ...
were not renewed, Wilhelm's government continued to implement measures against
socialist
Socialism is a left-wing economic philosophy and movement encompassing a range of economic systems characterized by the dominance of social ownership of the means of production as opposed to private ownership. As a term, it describes the e ...
ideas. Nevertheless, the
German Social Democratic Party
The Social Democratic Party of Germany (german: Sozialdemokratische Partei Deutschlands, ; SPD, ) is a centre-left social democratic political party in Germany. It is one of the major parties of contemporary Germany.
Saskia Esken has been the ...
continued to grow in strength and became the largest faction in the elected
Reichstag during the
1912 elections. Despite the party's stronger influence, internal developments were characterised by an increasing loyalty of the party establishment towards the Emperor and the empire. That attitude was condemned as "
revisionism" by its opponents but culminated in the ''
Burgfrieden
The or 'c.fBurgfriedeat Duden online. was a German medieval term that referred to imposition of a state of truce within the jurisdiction of a castle, and sometimes its estate, under which feuds, i.e. conflicts between private individuals, were ...
'' policy of granting loans to fund the German effort during the First World War.
Foreign policy was founded on Wilhelm's
imperialist
Imperialism is the state policy, practice, or advocacy of extending power and dominion, especially by direct territorial acquisition or by gaining political and economic control of other areas, often through employing hard power (economic and ...
ambitions and directed towards the establishment of Germany as a
world power
A great power is a sovereign state that is recognized as having the ability and expertise to exert its influence on a global scale. Great powers characteristically possess military and economic strength, as well as diplomatic and soft power inf ...
(''Weltmacht''). The desire for a "place in the sun" as coined by Foreign Secretary
Bernhard von Bülow
Bernhard Heinrich Karl Martin, Prince of Bülow (german: Bernhard Heinrich Karl Martin Fürst von Bülow ; 3 May 1849 – 28 October 1929) was a German statesman who served as the foreign minister for three years and then as the chancellor of t ...
and was shared by a large number of German citizens and intellectuals.
Pan-Germanism
Pan-Germanism (german: Pangermanismus or '), also occasionally known as Pan-Germanicism, is a pan-nationalist political idea. Pan-Germanists originally sought to unify all the German-speaking people – and possibly also Germanic-speaking ...
achieved a short-lived high point after the acquisition of some
colonial possessions in Africa and in the
South Seas
Today the term South Seas, or South Sea, is used in several contexts. Most commonly it refers to the portion of the Pacific Ocean south of the equator. In 1513, when Spanish conquistador Vasco Núñez de Balboa coined the term ''Mar del Sur'', ...
, but external relations deteriorated. In 1890, Germany had refused to prolong the secret
Reinsurance Treaty
The Reinsurance Treaty was a diplomatic agreement between the German Empire and the Russian Empire that was in effect from 1887 to 1890. Only a handful of top officials in Berlin and St. Petersburg knew of its existence since it was top secret. Th ...
with the
Russian Empire
The Russian Empire was an empire and the final period of the Russian monarchy from 1721 to 1917, ruling across large parts of Eurasia. It succeeded the Tsardom of Russia following the Treaty of Nystad, which ended the Great Northern War. ...
that had concluded by Bismarck in 1887, and Germany had to witness the forming of the
Franco-Russian Alliance
The Franco-Russian Alliance (french: Alliance Franco-Russe, russian: Франко-Русский Альянс, translit=Franko-Russkiy Al'yans), or Russo-French Rapprochement (''Rapprochement Russo-Français'', Русско-Французско ...
, which presenting a new scenario of a
two-front war
According to military terminology, a two-front war occurs when opposing forces encounter on two geographically separate fronts. The forces of two or more allied parties usually simultaneously engage an opponent in order to increase their chances ...
. Relations with Britain were not strained by the
Scramble for Africa
The Scramble for Africa, also called the Partition of Africa, or Conquest of Africa, was the invasion, annexation, division, and colonisation of Africa, colonization of most of Africa by seven Western Europe, Western European powers during a ...
but especially by the
Anglo-German naval arms race
The arms race between Great Britain and Germany that occurred from the last decade of the nineteenth century until the advent of World War I in 1914 was one of the intertwined causes of that conflict. While based in a bilateral relationship that ...
. Wilhelm's fascination with the
Imperial German Navy
The Imperial German Navy or the Imperial Navy () was the navy of the German Empire, which existed between 1871 and 1919. It grew out of the small Prussian Navy (from 1867 the North German Federal Navy), which was mainly for coast defence. Wilhel ...
and his ambition to see it established as an instrument for the projection of world power were reflected in everyday German life. Until the mid-20th century, boys were even dressed in
sailor suits
A sailor suit is a uniform traditionally worn by enlisted seamen in a navy or other governmental sea services. It later developed into a popular clothing style for children, especially as dress clothes.
Origins and history
In the Royal Navy, t ...
to impress them at an early age with the Navy's aura and prestige.
![Pickelhauben IMG 1725](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8a/Pickelhauben_IMG_1725.JPG)
The distinctive spiked helmet, the so-called ''
Pickelhaube
The ( pl. ; from german: Pickel, lit=point' or 'pickaxe, and , , a general word for "headgear"), also , is a spiked helmet that was worn in the 19th and 20th centuries by Prussian and German military officers, firefighters and police. Although ...
'' had existed previously and not only in the German Empire, but it symbolised Wilhelmine period since the
Imperial Army and German
militarism
Militarism is the belief or the desire of a government or a people that a state should maintain a strong military capability and to use it aggressively to expand national interests and/or values. It may also imply the glorification of the mili ...
in general. (In fact, various
sign language
Sign languages (also known as signed languages) are languages that use the visual-manual modality to convey meaning, instead of spoken words. Sign languages are expressed through manual articulation in combination with non-manual markers. Sign l ...
s still have the extended forefinger placed in front of the forehead, indicating the spiked helmet, as the sign for "German".) "Wilhelmism" is equally applied to the distinctive styles prevailing in the visual arts and architecture of the period, such as the ornate ''Germania'' postage stamps,
Germania Issue - 1900
/ref> numerous government buildings and the Wilhelmine Ring housing areas of Berlin and many other German cities. The term is also used to describe, among other things, an essentially- Neo-Baroque and extraordinarily-prestige-oriented style of architecture, which is calculated to give expression to the Germany's claim to an imperial power. The style was particularly exemplified by the grandiose Siegesallee
The Siegesallee (, ''Victory Avenue'') was a broad boulevard in Berlin, Germany. In 1895, Kaiser Wilhelm II ordered and financed the expansion of an existing avenue, to be adorned with a variety of marble statues. Work was completed in 1901.
A ...
, a boulevard of sculptures that was lampooned by Berliners as ''Puppenallee'' ("mall of dolls"), and it was given official status by Wilhelm's so-called ''Rinnsteinrede'' ("gutter speech") on what he considered to be modernist degenerate art
Degenerate art (german: Entartete Kunst was a term adopted in the 1920s by the Nazi Party in Germany to describe modern art. During the dictatorship of Adolf Hitler, German modernist art, including many works of internationally renowned artists, ...
at the inauguration of the extravagant boulevard on December 18, 1901.
See also
* ''Der Untertan
''Der Untertan'' (; literally "the underling", translated into English under the titles ''Man of Straw'', ''The Patrioteer'', and ''The Loyal Subject'') is one of the best known novel
A novel is a relatively long work of narrative fiction, ...
''
* National Kaiser Wilhelm Monument
The National Kaiser Wilhelm Monument (''Kaiser-Wilhelm-Nationaldenkmal'') was a memorial structure in Berlin dedicated to Wilhelm I, first Emperor of Imperial Germany. It stood in front of the Berlin Palace from 1897 to 1950, when both structures ...
* Index of Germany-related articles
The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to Germany:
Germany – federal parliamentary republic in Western- Central Europe consisting of 16 constituent states (german: Bundesland), which retain limited sover ...
References
Sources
*Geoff Eley
Geoffrey Howard eoffEley (born 4 May 1949) is a British-born historian of Germany. He studied history at Balliol College, Oxford, and received his PhD from the University of Sussex in 1974. He has taught at the University of Michigan, Ann Ar ...
(ed.) and James Retallack (ed.): ''Wilhelminism and Its Legacies. German Modernities and the Meanings of Reform, 1890-1930. Essays for Hartmut Pogge von Strandmann.'' Berghahn Books, New York and Oxford, 2003
*R. J. Evans (ed.) and Hartmut Pogge von Strandmann (ed.): ''The Coming of the First World War.'' Clarendon Press, 1990.
*John C. G. Röhl
John C. G. Röhl (born 31 May 1938) is a British historian notable for his work on Imperial Germany and European history.
Early life
John Charles Gerald Röhl was born in the German Hospital in Dalston, east London, on 31 May 1938 to a German ...
: ''The Kaiser and His Court: Wilhelm II and the Government of Germany.'' Cambridge University Press, 1966.
*John C. G. Röhl: ''Wilhelm II : The Kaiser's Personal Monarchy, 1888-1900''. Cambridge University Press, 2004.
*John C. G. Röhl: ''Kaiser, Hof und Staat. Wilhelm II. und die deutsche Politik''. C. H. Beck, Munich ³1988 (TB 2002), .
*John C. G. Röhl: ''Wilhelm II.'', C. H. Beck, Munich 1993–2008:
** Volume 1: ''Die Jugend des Kaisers, 1859–1888''. Munich 1993, ²2001, .
** Volume 2: ''Der Aufbau der Persönlichen Monarchie, 1888–1900''. Munich 2001, .
** Volume 3: ''Der Weg in den Abgrund, 1900–1941''. Munich 2008, .
online review by Lothar Machtan, Institut für Geschichtswissenschaft, Bremen University
on http://hsozkult.geschichte.hu-berlin.de/)
* Fritz Fischer
Fritz Fischer (5 March 1908 – 1 December 1999) was a German historian best known for his analysis of the causes of World War I. In the early 1960s Fischer advanced the controversial thesis at the time that responsibility for the outbreak of the ...
: ''Griff nach der Weltmacht. Die Kriegszielpolitik des kaiserlichen Deutschland 1914/18'' (1961), Droste 2000 (reprint of special edition, 1967), .
External links
Zeitreise – exhibition in Nordrhein-Westfalen
(ARD series during “Preußenjahr“ 2001)
Warum der Wilhelminismus als politischer Kampfbegriff nichts taugt
- ''Die Zeit
''Die Zeit'' (, "The Time") is a German national weekly newspaper published in Hamburg in Germany. The newspaper is generally considered to be among the German newspapers of record and is known for its long and extensive articles.
History
The ...
'', February 1999
{{Authority control
German Empire
Wilhelm II, German Emperor
Periodization
Historiography of Germany
Belle Époque