The Peace of Westphalia (german: Westfälischer Friede, ) is the collective name for two
peace treaties signed in October 1648 in the
Westphalia
Westphalia (; german: Westfalen ; nds, Westfalen ) is a region of northwestern Germany and one of the three historic parts of the state of North Rhine-Westphalia. It has an area of and 7.9 million inhabitants.
The territory of the regio ...
n cities of
Osnabrück
Osnabrück (; wep, Ossenbrügge; archaic ''Osnaburg'') is a city in the German state of Lower Saxony. It is situated on the river Hase in a valley penned between the Wiehen Hills and the northern tip of the Teutoburg Forest. With a population ...
and
Münster
Münster (; nds, Mönster) is an independent city (''Kreisfreie Stadt'') in North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany. It is in the northern part of the state and is considered to be the cultural centre of the Westphalia region. It is also a state di ...
. They ended the
Thirty Years' War
The Thirty Years' War was one of the longest and most destructive conflicts in European history, lasting from 1618 to 1648. Fought primarily in Central Europe, an estimated 4.5 to 8 million soldiers and civilians died as a result of battle ...
(1618–1648) and brought peace to the
Holy Roman Empire
The Holy Roman Empire was a political entity in Western, Central, and Southern Europe that developed during the Early Middle Ages and continued until its dissolution in 1806 during the Napoleonic Wars.
From the accession of Otto I in 962 ...
, closing a calamitous period of European history that killed approximately eight million people.
Holy Roman Emperor Ferdinand III, the kingdoms of France and Sweden, and their respective allies among the princes of the
Holy Roman Empire
The Holy Roman Empire was a political entity in Western, Central, and Southern Europe that developed during the Early Middle Ages and continued until its dissolution in 1806 during the Napoleonic Wars.
From the accession of Otto I in 962 ...
participated in these treaties.
[Clodfelter, Micheal (2017). ''Warfare and Armed Conflicts: A Statistical Encyclopedia of Casualty and Other Figures, 1492–2015.'' McFarland. p. 40. .]
The negotiation process was lengthy and complex. Talks took place in two cities, because each side wanted to meet on territory under its own control. A total of 109 delegations arrived to represent the belligerent states, but not all delegations were present at the same time. Two treaties were signed to end the war in the Empire: the Treaty of Münster and the Treaty of Osnabrück. These treaties ended the Thirty Years' War in the
Holy Roman Empire
The Holy Roman Empire was a political entity in Western, Central, and Southern Europe that developed during the Early Middle Ages and continued until its dissolution in 1806 during the Napoleonic Wars.
From the accession of Otto I in 962 ...
, with the Habsburgs (rulers of Austria and Spain) and their Catholic allies on one side, battling the Protestant powers (Sweden and certain Holy Roman principalities) allied with France (though Catholic, strongly anti-Habsburg under King
Louis XIV
, house = Bourbon
, father = Louis XIII
, mother = Anne of Austria
, birth_date =
, birth_place = Château de Saint-Germain-en-Laye, Saint-Germain-en-Laye, France
, death_date =
, death_place = Palace of Ver ...
).
Joachim Whaley, a leading English-language historian of the Holy Roman Empire, mentions that later commentators such as
Leibniz
Gottfried Wilhelm (von) Leibniz . ( – 14 November 1716) was a German polymath active as a mathematician, philosopher, scientist and diplomat. He is one of the most prominent figures in both the history of philosophy and the history of ma ...
,
Rousseau
Jean-Jacques Rousseau (, ; 28 June 1712 – 2 July 1778) was a Genevan philosopher, writer, and composer. His political philosophy influenced the progress of the Age of Enlightenment throughout Europe, as well as aspects of the French Revolu ...
,
Kant
Immanuel Kant (, , ; 22 April 1724 – 12 February 1804) was a German philosopher and one of the central Enlightenment thinkers. Born in Königsberg, Kant's comprehensive and systematic works in epistemology, metaphysics, ethics, and aest ...
, and
Schiller eulogized the Peace of Westphalia as the first step towards a universal peace, but he points out that "their projections for the future should not be mistaken for descriptions of reality".
Several scholars of
international relations
International relations (IR), sometimes referred to as international studies and international affairs, is the scientific study of interactions between sovereign states. In a broader sense, it concerns all activities between states—such a ...
have identified the Peace of Westphalia as the origin of principles crucial to modern international relations, collectively known as
Westphalian sovereignty
Westphalian sovereignty, or state sovereignty, is a principle in international law that each state has exclusive sovereignty over its territory. The principle underlies the modern international system of sovereign states and is enshrined in the ...
. However historians have argued against this, suggesting that such views emerged during the nineteenth and twentieth century in relation to the later concerns about sovereignty of this subsequent period.
Background
Europe had been battered by both the Thirty Years' War and the
Eighty Years' War, exacting a heavy toll in money and lives. The Eighty Years' War was a prolonged struggle for the independence of the Protestant-majority
Dutch Republic
The United Provinces of the Netherlands, also known as the (Seven) United Provinces, officially as the Republic of the Seven United Netherlands (Dutch: ''Republiek der Zeven Verenigde Nederlanden''), and commonly referred to in historiography ...
(the modern Netherlands), supported by Protestant-majority England, against Catholic-dominated Spain and Portugal. The Thirty Years' War was the most deadly of the
European wars of religion, centred on the Holy Roman Empire. The war, which developed into four phases, included a large number of domestic and foreign players, siding either with the
Catholic League or the
Protestant Union
The Protestant Union (german: Protestantische Union), also known as the Evangelical Union, Union of Auhausen, German Union or the Protestant Action Party, was a coalition of Protestant German states. It was formed on 14 May 1608 by Frederick I ...
(later
Heilbronn League
The Heilbronn League was formed in the Free Imperial City of Heilbronn, on 23 April 1633, during the Thirty Years' War. Led by Sweden, it brought together various Protestant states in western and northern Germany. It was supported by Saxony a ...
). The
Peace of Prague (1635) ended most religious aspects of the war, and the
French–Habsburg rivalry
The term French–Habsburg rivalry (; ) describes the rivalry between France and the House of Habsburg. The Habsburgs headed an expansive and evolving Empire that included, at various times, the Holy Roman Empire, the Spanish Empire, Austria, Boh ...
took over prominence. With between 4.5 million and 8 million dead in the Thirty Years' War alone, and decades of constant warfare, the need for peace became increasingly clear.
Locations
Peace negotiations between France and the
Habsburg Emperor
An emperor (from la, imperator, via fro, empereor) is a monarch, and usually the sovereignty, sovereign ruler of an empire or another type of imperial realm. Empress, the female equivalent, may indicate an emperor's wife (empress consort), ...
began in
Cologne
Cologne ( ; german: Köln ; ksh, Kölle ) is the largest city of the German western state of North Rhine-Westphalia (NRW) and the fourth-most populous city of Germany with 1.1 million inhabitants in the city proper and 3.6 millio ...
in 1636. These negotiations were initially blocked by
Cardinal Richelieu of France, who insisted on the inclusion of all his allies, whether fully sovereign countries or states within the
Holy Roman Empire
The Holy Roman Empire was a political entity in Western, Central, and Southern Europe that developed during the Early Middle Ages and continued until its dissolution in 1806 during the Napoleonic Wars.
From the accession of Otto I in 962 ...
. In
Hamburg
(male), (female) en, Hamburger(s),
Hamburgian(s)
, timezone1 = Central (CET)
, utc_offset1 = +1
, timezone1_DST = Central (CEST)
, utc_offset1_DST = +2
, postal ...
, Sweden, France, and the Holy Roman Empire negotiated a preliminary peace in December 1641.
They declared that the preparations of Cologne and the Treaty of Hamburg were preliminaries of an overall peace agreement.
![EinzugdesGesandten AdriaenPauw](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/53/EinzugdesGesandten_AdriaenPauw.jpg)
The main peace negotiations took place in
Westphalia
Westphalia (; german: Westfalen ; nds, Westfalen ) is a region of northwestern Germany and one of the three historic parts of the state of North Rhine-Westphalia. It has an area of and 7.9 million inhabitants.
The territory of the regio ...
, in the neighbouring cities of
Münster
Münster (; nds, Mönster) is an independent city (''Kreisfreie Stadt'') in North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany. It is in the northern part of the state and is considered to be the cultural centre of the Westphalia region. It is also a state di ...
and
Osnabrück
Osnabrück (; wep, Ossenbrügge; archaic ''Osnaburg'') is a city in the German state of Lower Saxony. It is situated on the river Hase in a valley penned between the Wiehen Hills and the northern tip of the Teutoburg Forest. With a population ...
. Both cities were maintained as neutral and demilitarized zones for the negotiations.
In Münster, negotiations took place between the Holy Roman Empire and France, as well as between the
Dutch Republic
The United Provinces of the Netherlands, also known as the (Seven) United Provinces, officially as the Republic of the Seven United Netherlands (Dutch: ''Republiek der Zeven Verenigde Nederlanden''), and commonly referred to in historiography ...
and Spain who on 30 January 1648 signed a
peace treaty
A peace treaty is an agreement between two or more hostile parties, usually countries or governments, which formally ends a state of war between the parties. It is different from an armistice
An armistice is a formal agreement of warring ...
ending the Eighty Years' War that was not part of the Peace of Westphalia. Münster had been, since its re-Catholicisation in 1535, a strictly mono-denominational community. It housed the Chapter of the
Prince-Bishopric of Münster
The Prince-Bishopric of Münster (german: Fürstbistum Münster; Bistum Münster, Hochstift Münster) was a large ecclesiastical principality in the Holy Roman Empire, located in the northern part of today's North Rhine-Westphalia and western Lo ...
. Only
Roman Catholic
Roman or Romans most often refers to:
*Rome, the capital city of Italy
* Ancient Rome, Roman civilization from 8th century BC to 5th century AD
* Roman people, the people of ancient Rome
*'' Epistle to the Romans'', shortened to ''Romans'', a let ...
worship was permitted, while
Calvinism
Calvinism (also called the Reformed Tradition, Reformed Protestantism, Reformed Christianity, or simply Reformed) is a major branch of Protestantism that follows the theological tradition and forms of Christian practice set down by John Ca ...
and
Lutheranism
Lutheranism is one of the largest branches of Protestantism, identifying primarily with the theology of Martin Luther, the 16th-century German monk and reformer whose efforts to reform the theology and practice of the Catholic Church launched th ...
were prohibited.
Sweden preferred to negotiate with the Holy Roman Empire in Osnabrück, which was controlled by Protestant forces. Osnabrück was a bidenominational Lutheran and Catholic city, with two Lutheran churches and two Catholic churches. The city council was exclusively Lutheran, and the
burghers mostly so, but the city also housed the Catholic Chapter of the
Prince-Bishopric of Osnabrück
The Prince-Bishopric of OsnabrückAlso known as the Prince-Bishopric of Osnaburg) (german: link=no, Hochstift Osnabrück; Fürstbistum Osnabrück, Bistum Osnabrück) was an ecclesiastical principality of the Holy Roman Empire from 1225 until 1803. ...
and had many other Catholic inhabitants. Osnabrück had been subjugated by troops of the
Catholic League from 1628 to 1633 and was then taken by Lutheran Sweden.
Delegations
The peace negotiations had no exact beginning or end, because the 109 delegations never met in a plenary session. Instead, various delegations arrived between 1643 and 1646 and left between 1647 and 1649. The largest number of diplomats were present between January 1646 and July 1647.
Delegations had been sent by 16 European states, 66
Imperial States
An Imperial State or Imperial Estate ( la, Status Imperii; german: Reichsstand, plural: ') was a part of the Holy Roman Empire with representation and the right to vote in the Imperial Diet ('). Rulers of these Estates were able to exercise si ...
representing the interests of 140 Imperial States, and 27 interest groups representing 38 groups.
* The French delegation was headed by
Henri II d'Orléans, duc de Longueville
Henri is an Estonian, Finnish, French, German and Luxembourgish form of the masculine given name Henry.
People with this given name
; French noblemen
:'' See the ' List of rulers named Henry' for Kings of France named Henri.''
* Henri I de Mont ...
and further comprised the diplomats
Claude d'Avaux and
Abel Servien Abel Servien, marquis de Sablé et de Boisdauphin and comte de La Roche des Aubiers (1 November 159317 February 1659) was a French diplomat who served Cardinal Mazarin and signed for the French the Treaty of Westphalia. He was an early member of th ...
.
* The Swedish delegation was headed by
Count Johan Oxenstierna and was assisted by
Baron Johan Adler Salvius.
* The Imperial delegation was headed by
Count Maximilian von Trautmansdorff. His aides were:
** In Münster,
Johann Ludwig von Nassau-Hadamar
John Louis of Nassau-Hadamar, (Dillenburg, 6 August 1590 – Hadamar, 10 March 1653) and also known in German as Johann Ludwig, was a German nobleman and member of the House of Nassau who is best known for his role as an aide to the head of the i ...
and Isaak Volmar.
** In Osnabrück,
Johann Maximilian von Lamberg
Johann Maximilian von Lamberg (german: Johann Maximilian Nepomuk Reichsgraf von Lamberg-Steyr, Brno, 23 November 1608 – Vienna, 12 December 1682) was an Austrian nobleman, diplomat and courtier. In the service of the Habsburgs, he excelled in th ...
and ''
Reichshofrat'' Johann Krane.
*
Philip IV of Spain
Philip IV ( es, Felipe, pt, Filipe; 8 April 160517 September 1665), also called the Planet King (Spanish: ''Rey Planeta''), was King of Spain from 1621 to his death and (as Philip III) King of Portugal from 1621 to 1640. Philip is remembered ...
was represented by two delegations:
** The Spanish delegation was headed by
Gaspar de Bracamonte y Guzmán, and notably included the diplomats and writers
Diego de Saavedra Fajardo
Diego de Saavedra Fajardo (24 August 1648) was a Spanish diplomat and man of letters.
Biography
He was born in Algezares, in what is now the province of Murcia.
After receiving a religious education at Salamanca, he took minor orders, and ...
, and
Bernardino de Rebolledo
Bernardino de Rebolledo y Villamizar, Earl of Rebolledo and Graf (Count) of the Holy Roman Empire was a Spanish poet, soldier and diplomat ( León, baptized May 31, 1597 - Madrid, March 27, 1676). He was a descendant of the 1st Count of Rebolledo, ...
.
** The
Franche Comté Franche may refer to:
*Franche, Worcestershire
Franche is a village in Worcestershire, England, just outside Kidderminster. It is served by two main bus services. These are service 297 operated by Arriva Midlands
Arriva Midlands is a bus op ...
and the
Spanish Netherlands
Spanish Netherlands (Spanish: PaÃses Bajos Españoles; Dutch: Spaanse Nederlanden; French: Pays-Bas espagnols; German: Spanische Niederlande.) (historically in Spanish: ''Flandes'', the name "Flanders" was used as a ''pars pro toto'') was the H ...
were represented by
Joseph de Bergaigne
Joseph de Bergaigne (1588–1647) was a prelate and diplomat from the Habsburg Netherlands who was appointed bishop of 's-Hertogenbosch and archbishop of Cambrai. He was the last bishop of 's-Hertogenbosch until the restoration of the Catholic hi ...
(who died before peace was concluded) and
Antoine Brun.
* The
papal nuncio
An apostolic nuncio ( la, nuntius apostolicus; also known as a papal nuncio or simply as a nuncio) is an ecclesiastical diplomat, serving as an envoy or a permanent diplomatic representative of the Holy See to a state or to an international org ...
in
Cologne
Cologne ( ; german: Köln ; ksh, Kölle ) is the largest city of the German western state of North Rhine-Westphalia (NRW) and the fourth-most populous city of Germany with 1.1 million inhabitants in the city proper and 3.6 millio ...
,
Fabio Chigi
Pope Alexander VII ( it, Alessandro VII; 13 February 159922 May 1667), born Fabio Chigi, was head of the Catholic Church and ruler of the Papal States from 7 April 1655 to his death in May 1667.
He began his career as a vice-papal legate, and ...
, and the
Venetian envoy,
Alvise Contarini, acted as mediators.
* Various
Imperial States of the Holy Roman Empire also sent delegations.
* Brandenburg sent several representatives, including Volmar.
* The
Dutch Republic
The United Provinces of the Netherlands, also known as the (Seven) United Provinces, officially as the Republic of the Seven United Netherlands (Dutch: ''Republiek der Zeven Verenigde Nederlanden''), and commonly referred to in historiography ...
sent a delegation of six, including two delegates from the province of Holland, including
Adriaan Pauw, and
Willem Ripperda from the province of Overijssel; two provinces were absent.
* The
Swiss Confederacy
The Old Swiss Confederacy or Swiss Confederacy ( Modern German: ; historically , after the Reformation also , "Confederation of the Swiss") was a loose confederation of independent small states (, German or In the charters of the 14th century ...
was represented by
Johann Rudolf Wettstein.
Treaties
Two separate treaties constituted the peace settlement:
* The Treaty of Münster (''Instrumentum Pacis Monasteriensis'', IPM), between the Holy Roman Emperor and France, along with their respective allies
* The Treaty of Osnabrück (''Instrumentum Pacis Osnabrugensis'', IPO), between the Holy Roman Emperor and Sweden, along with their respective allies.
Results
Internal political boundaries
The power asserted by
Ferdinand III was stripped from him and returned to the rulers of the
Imperial States. The rulers of the
Imperial States could again choose their own official religions. Catholics and Protestants were redefined as equal before the law, and
Calvinism
Calvinism (also called the Reformed Tradition, Reformed Protestantism, Reformed Christianity, or simply Reformed) is a major branch of Protestantism that follows the theological tradition and forms of Christian practice set down by John Ca ...
was given legal recognition as an official religion.
[Treaty of Münster 1648] The independence of the Dutch Republic, which practiced religious toleration, also provided a safe haven for European Jews.
The
Holy See
The Holy See ( lat, Sancta Sedes, ; it, Santa Sede ), also called the See of Rome, Petrine See or Apostolic See, is the jurisdiction of the Pope in his role as the bishop of Rome. It includes the apostolic episcopal see of the Diocese of R ...
was very displeased at the settlement, with Pope
Innocent X
Pope Innocent X ( la, Innocentius X; it, Innocenzo X; 6 May 1574 – 7 January 1655), born Giovanni Battista Pamphilj (or Pamphili), was head of the Catholic Church and ruler of the Papal States from 15 September 1644 to his death in January ...
calling it "null, void, invalid, iniquitous, unjust, damnable, reprobate, inane, empty of meaning and effect for all time" in the
bull
A bull is an intact (i.e., not castrated) adult male of the species ''Bos taurus'' (cattle). More muscular and aggressive than the females of the same species (i.e., cows), bulls have long been an important symbol in many religions,
includin ...
''Zelo Domus Dei''.
Tenets
The main tenets of the Peace of Westphalia were:
* All parties would recognise the
Peace of Augsburg of 1555, in which each prince had the right to determine the religion of his own state (the principle of ''
cuius regio, eius religio
() is a Latin phrase which literally means "whose realm, their religion" – meaning that the religion of the ruler was to dictate the religion of those ruled. This legal principle marked a major development in the collective (if not individua ...
''). However, the ''ius reformandi'' was removed: Subjects were no longer forced to follow the conversion of their ruler. Rulers were allowed to choose between Catholicism, Lutheranism, or Calvinism.
* 1 January 1624 was defined as the normative date for determining the dominant religion of a state. All ecclesiastical property was to be restored to the condition of 1624. Christians living in principalities where their denomination was ''not'' the established church were guaranteed the right to practice their faith in private, as well as in public during allotted hours.
* France and Sweden were recognised as
guarantors of the imperial constitution with a right to intercede.
Territorial adjustments
![Holy Roman Empire 1648](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7d/Holy_Roman_Empire_1648.svg)
* France retained the Bishoprics of
Metz
Metz ( , , lat, Divodurum Mediomatricorum, then ) is a city in northeast France located at the confluence of the Moselle and the Seille rivers. Metz is the prefecture of the Moselle department and the seat of the parliament of the Grand ...
,
Toul
Toul () is a commune in the Meurthe-et-Moselle department in north-eastern France.
It is a sub-prefecture of the department.
Geography
Toul is between Commercy and Nancy, and the river Moselle and Canal de la Marne au Rhin.
Climate
Toul ...
and
Verdun
Verdun (, , , ; official name before 1970 ''Verdun-sur-Meuse'') is a large city in the Meuse department in Grand Est, northeastern France. It is an arrondissement of the department.
Verdun is the biggest city in Meuse, although the capital ...
near
Lorraine
Lorraine , also , , ; Lorrain: ''Louréne''; Lorraine Franconian: ''Lottringe''; german: Lothringen ; lb, Loutrengen; nl, Lotharingen is a cultural and historical region in Northeastern France, now located in the administrative region of Gra ...
, received the cities of the
Décapole in Alsace (except for
Strasbourg, the
Bishopric of Strasbourg, and
Mulhouse
Mulhouse (; Alsatian: or , ; ; meaning '' mill house'') is a city of the Haut-Rhin department, in the Grand Est region, eastern France, close to the Swiss and German borders. It is the largest city in Haut-Rhin and second largest in Alsace a ...
) and the city of
Pignerol
Pinerolo (; pms, Pinareul ; french: Pignerol; oc, Pineròl) is a town and ''comune'' in the Metropolitan City of Turin, Piedmont, northwestern Italy, southwest of Turin on the river Chisone. The Lemina torrent has its source at the boundary ...
near the Spanish
Duchy of Milan.
* Sweden received an
indemnity
In contract law, an indemnity is a contractual obligation of one party (the ''indemnitor'') to compensate the loss incurred by another party (the ''indemnitee'') due to the relevant acts of the indemnitor or any other party. The duty to indemni ...
of five million
thalers, which it used primarily to pay its troops. Sweden further received
Western Pomerania
Historical Western Pomerania, also called Cispomerania, Fore Pomerania, Front Pomerania or Hither Pomerania (german: Vorpommern), is the western extremity of the historic region of Pomerania forming the southern coast of the Baltic Sea, Weste ...
(thenceforth
Swedish Pomerania
Swedish Pomerania ( sv, Svenska Pommern; german: Schwedisch-Pommern) was a dominion under the Swedish Crown from 1630 to 1815 on what is now the Baltic coast of Germany and Poland. Following the Polish War and the Thirty Years' War, Sweden held ...
),
Wismar
Wismar (; Low German: ''Wismer''), officially the Hanseatic City of Wismar (''Hansestadt Wismar'') is, with around 43,000 inhabitants, the sixth-largest city of the northeastern German state of Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, and the fourth-largest city ...
, and the Prince-Bishoprics of
Bremen and
Verden as hereditary fiefs, thus gaining a seat and vote in the
Imperial Diet of the Holy Roman Empire as well as in the
Upper Saxon
Upper Saxon (german: Obersächsisch, ; ) is an East Central German language spoken in much of the modern German state of Saxony and in adjacent parts of southeastern Saxony-Anhalt and eastern Thuringia. As of the early 21st century, it's mostl ...
,
Lower Saxon and
Westphalian circle diets (''
Kreistage''). However, the wording of the treaties was ambiguous:
:*To escape incorporation into Swedish Bremen-Verden, the city of Bremen had claimed
Imperial immediacy
Imperial immediacy (german: Reichsfreiheit or ') was a privileged constitutional and political status rooted in German feudal law under which the Imperial estates of the Holy Roman Empire such as Imperial cities, prince-bishoprics and secular pri ...
. The emperor had granted this request and separated the city from the surrounding Bishopric of Bremen. Sweden launched the
Swedish-Bremen wars in 1653/54 in a failed attempt to take the city.
:*The treaty did not decide the Swedish-
Brandenburgian border in the
Duchy of Pomerania
The Duchy of Pomerania (german: Herzogtum Pommern; pl, Księstwo Pomorskie; Latin: ''Ducatus Pomeraniae'') was a duchy in Pomerania on the southern coast of the Baltic Sea, ruled by dukes of the House of Pomerania (''Griffins''). The country ha ...
. At Osnabrück, both Sweden and Brandenburg had claimed the whole duchy, which had been
under Swedish control since 1630 despite
legal claims of Brandenburgian succession. While the parties
settled for a border in 1653, the
underlying conflict continued.
:*The treaty ruled that the
Dukes of Mecklenburg
This list of dukes and grand dukes of Mecklenburg dates from the origins of the German princely state of Mecklenburg's royal house in the High Middle Ages to the monarchy's abolition at the end of World War I. Strictly speaking, Mecklenburg's p ...
, owing their re-investiture to the Swedes, cede
Wismar
Wismar (; Low German: ''Wismer''), officially the Hanseatic City of Wismar (''Hansestadt Wismar'') is, with around 43,000 inhabitants, the sixth-largest city of the northeastern German state of Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, and the fourth-largest city ...
and the Mecklenburgian port tolls. While Sweden understood this to include the tolls of all Mecklenburgian ports, the Mecklenburgian dukes as well as the emperor understood this to refer to Wismar only.
:*
Wildeshausen
Wildeshausen (Low Saxon: ''Wilshusen'') is a town and the capital of the Oldenburg district in Lower Saxony, Germany. It is situated by the river Hunte.
History
In 1648, Wildeshausen and the surrounding district was ceded to Sweden, in the Peace ...
, a petty exclave of Bremen-Verden and fragile basis for Sweden's seat in the Westphalian circle diet, was also claimed by the
Bishopric of Münster
In church governance, a diocese or bishopric is the ecclesiastical district under the jurisdiction of a bishop.
History
In the later organization of the Roman Empire, the increasingly subdivided provinces were administratively associat ...
.
*
Bavaria
Bavaria ( ; ), officially the Free State of Bavaria (german: Freistaat Bayern, link=no ), is a state in the south-east of Germany. With an area of , Bavaria is the largest German state by land area, comprising roughly a fifth of the total lan ...
retained the
Palatinate's vote in the
Electoral College of the Holy Roman Empire, which it was granted by the imperial ban on the Elector Palatine Frederick V in 1623. The
Prince Palatine
Prince Palatine (1908–1924) was a United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, British Thoroughbred horse racing, racehorse. He was named for Duchy of Lancaster, County Palatine of Lancaster near where his breeder William Walker, 1st Baron Wa ...
, Frederick's son, was given a ''new'', eighth electoral vote.
* The Palatinate was divided between the re-established
Elector Palatine Charles Louis (son and heir of
Frederick V Frederick V or Friedrich V may refer to:
* Frederick V, Duke of Swabia (1164–1170)
*Frederick V, Count of Zollern (d.1289)
*Frederick V, Burgrave of Nuremberg (c. 1333–1398), German noble
*Frederick V of Austria (1415–1493), or Frederick III ...
) and
Elector-Duke Maximilian of Bavaria, and thus between the
Protestant
Protestantism is a branch of Christianity that follows the theological tenets of the Protestant Reformation, a movement that began seeking to reform the Catholic Church from within in the 16th century against what its followers perceived to b ...
s and
Catholics. Charles Louis obtained the
Lower Palatinate, along the Rhine, while Maximilian kept the
Upper Palatinate
The Upper Palatinate (german: Oberpfalz, , ) is one of the seven administrative districts of Bavaria, Germany, and is located in the east of Bavaria.
Geography
The Upper Palatinate is a landscape with low mountains and numerous ponds and lakes ...
, to the north of Bavaria.
*
Brandenburg-Prussia received
Farther Pomerania
Farther Pomerania, Hinder Pomerania, Rear Pomerania or Eastern Pomerania (german: Hinterpommern, Ostpommern), is the part of Pomerania which comprised the eastern part of the Duchy and later Province of Pomerania. It stretched roughly from the Od ...
, and the Bishoprics of
Magdeburg
Magdeburg (; nds, label=Low Saxon, Meideborg ) is the capital and second-largest city of the German state Saxony-Anhalt. The city is situated at the Elbe river.
Otto I, the first Holy Roman Emperor and founder of the Archdiocese of Magdebu ...
,
Halberstadt
Halberstadt ( Eastphalian: ''Halverstidde'') is a town in the German state of Saxony-Anhalt, the capital of Harz district. Located north of the Harz mountain range, it is known for its old town center that was greatly destroyed by Allied bomb ...
,
Kammin, and
Minden.
* The succession to the
Jülich-Cleves-Berg, whose last duke had died in 1609, was clarified.
Jülich,
Berg Berg may refer to:
People
*Berg (surname), a surname (including a list of people with the name)
*Berg Ng (born 1960), Hong Kong actor
* Berg (footballer) (born 1989), Brazilian footballer
Former states
* Berg (state), county and duchy of the Hol ...
, and
Ravenstein Ravenstein may refer to:
Places
*Ravenstein, Germany in the district Neckar-Odenwald, Baden-Württemberg
*Ravenstein, Netherlands in Oss, North Brabant
*Ravenstein railway station
Films
Ravenstein a 2020 British Horror film
People with the su ...
were given to the
Count Palatine of Neuburg
Palatinate-Neuburg (german: Herzogtum Pfalz-Neuburg) was a territory of the Holy Roman Empire, founded in 1505 by a branch of the House of Wittelsbach. Its capital was Neuburg an der Donau. Its area was about 2,750 km², with a population of ...
, while
Cleves
Kleve (; traditional en, Cleves ; nl, Kleef; french: Clèves; es, Cléveris; la, Clivia; Low Rhenish: ''Kleff'') is a town in the Lower Rhine region of northwestern Germany near the Dutch border and the River Rhine. From the 11th century ...
,
Mark
Mark may refer to:
Currency
* Bosnia and Herzegovina convertible mark, the currency of Bosnia and Herzegovina
* East German mark, the currency of the German Democratic Republic
* Estonian mark, the currency of Estonia between 1918 and 1927
* F ...
, and
Ravensberg went to Brandenburg.
* The
Prince-Bishopric of Osnabrück
The Prince-Bishopric of OsnabrückAlso known as the Prince-Bishopric of Osnaburg) (german: link=no, Hochstift Osnabrück; Fürstbistum Osnabrück, Bistum Osnabrück) was an ecclesiastical principality of the Holy Roman Empire from 1225 until 1803. ...
would alternate between Catholic and Lutheran bishops, with the Protestant bishops chosen from the
cadets of the
House of Brunswick-Lüneburg.
* Barriers to trade and commerce erected during the war were abolished, and "a degree" of free navigation was guaranteed on the
Rhine
), Surselva, Graubünden, Switzerland
, source1_coordinates=
, source1_elevation =
, source2 = Rein Posteriur/Hinterrhein
, source2_location = Paradies Glacier, Graubünden, Switzerland
, source2_coordinates=
, so ...
.
Legacy
![AlegorÃa de la Paz de Westfalia, por Jacob Jordaens](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/34/Alegor%C3%ADa_de_la_Paz_de_Westfalia%2C_por_Jacob_Jordaens.jpg)
The treaties did not entirely end conflicts arising out of the Thirty Years' War. Fighting continued between France and Spain until the
Treaty of the Pyrenees
The Treaty of the Pyrenees (french: Traité des Pyrénées; es, Tratado de los Pirineos; ca, Tractat dels Pirineus) was signed on 7 November 1659 on Pheasant Island, and ended the Franco-Spanish War that had begun in 1635.
Negotiations were ...
in 1659. The
Dutch-Portuguese War that had begun during the
Iberian Union
pt, União Ibérica
, conventional_long_name =Iberian Union
, common_name =
, year_start = 1580
, date_start = 25 August
, life_span = 1580–1640
, event_start = War of the Portuguese Succession
, event_end = Portuguese Restoration War
, ...
between Spain and
Portugal
Portugal, officially the Portuguese Republic ( pt, República Portuguesa, links=yes ), is a country whose mainland is located on the Iberian Peninsula of Southwestern Europe, and whose territory also includes the Atlantic archipelagos of ...
, as part of the Eighty Years' War, went on until 1663. Nevertheless, the Peace of Westphalia did settle many outstanding European issues of the time.
Westphalian sovereignty
Some scholars of international relations have identified the Peace of Westphalia as the origin of principles crucial to modern
international relations
International relations (IR), sometimes referred to as international studies and international affairs, is the scientific study of interactions between sovereign states. In a broader sense, it concerns all activities between states—such a ...
, including the inviolability of borders and non-interference in the domestic affairs of sovereign states. This system became known in the literature as
Westphalian sovereignty
Westphalian sovereignty, or state sovereignty, is a principle in international law that each state has exclusive sovereignty over its territory. The principle underlies the modern international system of sovereign states and is enshrined in the ...
.
Most modern historians have challenged the association of this system with the Peace of Westphalia, calling it the 'Westphalian Myth.' They have challenged the view that the modern European states system originated with the Westphalian treaties. The treaties do not contain anything in their text about religious freedom, sovereignty, or balance of power that can be construed as international law principles. Constitutional arrangements of the
Holy Roman Empire
The Holy Roman Empire was a political entity in Western, Central, and Southern Europe that developed during the Early Middle Ages and continued until its dissolution in 1806 during the Napoleonic Wars.
From the accession of Otto I in 962 ...
are the only context in which sovereignty and religious equality are mentioned in the text, but they are not new ideas in this context. While the treaties do not contain the basis for the modern laws of nations themselves, they do symbolize the end of a long period of religious conflict in Europe.
See also
*
Eighty Years' War
*
Freedom of religion
Freedom of religion or religious liberty is a principle that supports the freedom of an individual or community, in public or private, to manifest religion or belief in teaching, practice, worship, and observance. It also includes the freed ...
*
History of Sweden, 1648–1700
*
List of treaties
This list of treaties contains known agreements, pacts, peaces, and major contracts between states, armies, governments, and tribal groups.
Before 1200 CE
1200–1299
1300–1399
1400–1499
1500–1599
1600–1699
1700–1799
...
*
Peace of Augsburg
*
Peace of Münster
*
Thirty Years' War
The Thirty Years' War was one of the longest and most destructive conflicts in European history, lasting from 1618 to 1648. Fought primarily in Central Europe, an estimated 4.5 to 8 million soldiers and civilians died as a result of battle ...
*
Westphalian sovereignty
Westphalian sovereignty, or state sovereignty, is a principle in international law that each state has exclusive sovereignty over its territory. The principle underlies the modern international system of sovereign states and is enshrined in the ...
*
Magna Carta
References
Further reading
* Croxton, Derek, and Anuschka Tischer. ''The Peace of Westphalia: A Historical Dictionary'' (Greenwood Publishing Group, 2002).
*
* Mowat, R. B. ''History of European Diplomacy, 1451–1789'' (1928) pp 104–1
online* Historiography.
External links
Texts of the Westphalian Treaties (full text in Latin, with translations to German, English, French, Italian, Swedish, and Spanish)
Peace Treaty of Münster(full text, English translation) â€
Peace Treaty of Münster(full text, German translation)
Peace Treaty of Osnabrück(full text, German translation)
{{DEFAULTSORT:Westphalia, Treaty Of
Thirty Years' War treaties
1648 treaties
Peace treaties of Sweden
Thirty Years' War
Treaties of the Holy Roman Empire
Treaties of Flanders
Treaties of the Dutch Republic
Peace treaties of the Netherlands
Peace treaties of Spain
Treaties of the Swedish Empire
Peace treaties of the Ancien Régime
Treaties of the Spanish Empire
Treaties of the Margraviate of Brandenburg
Peace of Westphalia
Peace of Westphalia
Peace of Westphalia
Peace of Westphalia
17th century in the Old Swiss Confederacy
History of the Palatinate (region)
17th-century diplomatic conferences
Diplomatic conferences in Germany
Peace of Westphalia
Peace of Westphalia
Peace of Westphalia
Peace of Westphalia
Christina, Queen of Sweden
Ferdinand III, Holy Roman Emperor
hu:Harmincéves háború#A vesztfáliai béke