Western Tarnished Plant Bug In California

Agriculture is a significant sector in California's economy, producing nearly $50 billion in revenue in 2018. There are more than 400 commodity crops grown across California, including a significant portion of all fruits, vegetables, and nuts for the United States. In 2017, there were 77,100 unique farms and ranches in the state, operating across of land. The average farm size was , significantly less than the average farm size in the U.S. of .

Because of its scale, and the naturally arid climate, the agricultural sector uses about 40% of California's water consumption. The agricultural sector is also connected to other negative environmental and the health impacts, including being one of the principle sources of water pollution.

Value

The table below shows the top 21 commodities, by dollar value, produced in California in 2017. Between 2016 and 2017, there were increases by more than 2% in total value for the following crops: almonds, dairy, grapes and cattle. The largest increase was seen in almond sales, which increased by 10.9% from 2016 to 2017, due to both increases in crop volume produced and the average market price for a pound of almonds. Dairy sales increased 8.2% from 2016 to 2017 due to an increase in the average price for milk, despite a slight decrease in total milk production. Grape sales increased by 3.1% from 2016 to 2017 due to an increase in price per ton of grape (from in 2016 to in 2017). Cattle sales also increased by 2.7% from 2016 to 2017.

Specific crops

Almonds

Almonds contribute a mean of 0.77 pounds N2O-N emissions per acre per year in Mediterranean agriculture systems.

Apple

The Fuji variety is a recent import from Fujisaki, Aomori, Japan. Introduced in the 1980s, it quickly became the most produced apple here.

For a common disease and treatment see and .

Apricot

For a common pest see .

Avocados

California farms produce 90% of all U.S.-grown avocados, with the great majority being of the Hass variety. In 2021 the state harvest was on for a yield of , and at that brought $327,369,000. Drought and heat can significantly reduce the harvest in some years. The Polyphagous Shothole Borer and the associated disease it carries have been a great concern here since their discovery on home avocado trees in LA County in 2012. Immediately eradication and quarantine efforts were instituted, and are continuing. (See below.)

For two invasive pests which have significantly reduced grower earnings see and .

Barley

Barley stripe rust was first found near Tehachapi in May 1915 on '' Hordeum murinum'' by Johnson and reported by Humphrey ''et al.'', 1924. . Hungerford 1923 and Hungerford & Owens 1923 found the pathogen on cultivated barley in the central part of the state and also on ''H. murinum'' here. See also .

Berries

See:
*
* , including:
**

Blueberry

The represents growers. UC IPM provides integrated pest management plans for blueberry ('' Vaccinium'' spp.).

Broccoli

Almost all of the country's broccoli is grown here. that was , all of which was harvested. The yield was for a harvest of . There was only trace wasteage. Selling at a price of , the year sold for $631,455,000.

For an invasive pest of this crop see the painted bug '.

The typical biomass of harvest residue in the coastal regions is . This isn't necessarily a waste product, as it can be useful as fumigant, see .

Caneberry

Caneberries ('' Rubus'' spp.) grown here include raspberry (see ), , , , and .

For a common disease of erect and trailing caneberry (excluding raspberry), see .

Cannabis

Cherries

The is a state marketing order representing growers and intermediaries here. The USDA FAS's Market Access Program funds international advertising especially in Canada, South Korea, Japan, China, and Australia. The state produces the earliest crop in the year starting in mid-April. Lasting until early or mid-June every year, this is the second heaviest harvest after Washington.

Planting density is usually about and the first real crop will be about six years later. Honey bees are essential to pollination for this crop. Cultivars grown here are harvested by hand with the stem ( pedicel).

The center of the state produces almost all the entire crop and San Joaquin County, near Lodi is the highest producing county. Many of these are Bing. newer Bing strains with better heat tolerance have recently been planted here as well as counties further south.

Birds are common pests in cherry orchards. See and for a repellent.

Cherry cultivars

Besides Bing, Brooks, Chelan, Coral, Rainier, and Tulare are also common.

Citrus

The Mediterranean climate affords a lower rate of post-harvest disease than in some of the world's growing regions, similar to the Mediterranean itself, Australia, and most of South Africa. . . . . Postharvest problems that do occur tend to be mostly blue and green '' Penicillium'' spp. The Asian citrus psyllid was discovered in Southern California in 2008 and eradication and quarantine are now underway. (See below.) DDT was formerly extensively used in this crop. (See .)

Cotton

'' Gossypium'' spp. are extensively grown in the Imperial Valley. For a common pest see , and for a formerly severe pest here see .

California was an early adopter of ''Bt'' cotton, but at a low proportion of acreage.

Cucumbers

From 19972000, the state's acreage varied between bringing in $57,969,000$67,744,000. By 2021 however the harvest was down to from for a yield of , and at that brought only $24,043,000.

Dairy

Dates

Over 90% of US production is grown here, and most of that in the Coachella Valley. The distant second is Arizona. The 2020 harvest was from , for a yield of . The year's crop sold for $114 million, an average of . The harvest extends from the beginning of October to the middle of December.

The detection of the Red Palm Weevil (''Rhynchophorus ferrugineus'') in 2010 was very concerning to this valuable industry. See .

Figs

Calimyrna is a common cultivar here.

Commodity figs here suffer from many insect pests here. See , , , , , , , , and .

For common diseases see and .

Fish and shellfish

Relative to traditional farming, aquaculture is a small part of California's agricultural economy, generating only $175 million in 2014. Oysters, abalone, mussels, channel catfish, rainbow trout, and salmon are farmed commercially.

Grains

See and .

Stripe rust is a continuous presence in the state. It is believed to have arrived in or before the 1770s because newspapers reported it starting then, and because there is a greater presence today of stripe than leaf or stem. See .

Grapes

The 2020 table grape harvest was worth $2.12 billion while wine grapes brought in $1.7 billion, down 15.3% year-on-year. By weight this was 17% lower versus 2018. The next year, 2021 saw a much better yield. From viniculturists got for a total harvest of . At an average of they were paid $5,229,902,000 for the season. Of that, were for destined for processing industries (including wine, see below) and at that was worth $4,046,382,000. The fresh ( table grape) harvest was and selling at a price of , this sector was worth $1,183,520,000 for the season.

The table grape and wine grape sectors are represented by the and the California Association of Winegrape Growers.

Table production is most concentrated in three counties and somewhat in another two. Dollar value annually is $1,240 million in Kern, $682 in Tulare, $416 in Fresno, and in the top ten crops in Riverside and Madera.

During dormancy, UC IPM recommends pruning. UC IPM publishes recommendations for this and other tasks during dormancy.

Deyett ''et al.'', 2020 finds Proteobacteria are the most common components of the microbiomes of this crop.

Diseases of grape

''Xylella fastidiosa'' was first discovered here in 1892 when Newton B. Pierce found Pierce's Disease in Los Angeles. Today it costs the state an estimated $100m per year. See , and for some other economic diseases, , , and for a fungal treatment.

UCD's FPS performs disease testing, vinestock identification testing, and supplies vinestock. FPS is one of the few National Clean Plant Network (NCPN) members holding vinestock for grapes in the country. See also .

The Canadian Food Inspection Agency has a good opinion of the state's phytosanitary certification system. As a result CFIA's Plant Protection Division has approved California plant material for import.

Hoffman ''et al.'', 2011 surveys the Lodi AVA and finds that growers themselves (including those who also work as educators for other growers) are most central to the spread of management information. Those who are not themselves growers, but are full time educators, are less connected to the actual spread of information.

is another costly disease here. PM cost the industry $239 million in 2015, including losses and treatment costs, according to the estimate of Sambucci ''et al.'', 2019.

Afflictions in grapevine around the world are often treated by removal and replanting, and this is often used in this state's industry. Regrowth is slow and replant disease often results from this. Westphal ''et al.'', 2002 finds that regrowth is hampered by the soil microbiome in California's soils. They apply a supplemental plant growth-promiting rhizobacteria (PGPR) treatment using arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) and achieve quicker productivity recovery. This is one of the few studies in this technique and this area is understudied.

It is speculated that drought stress will increase fungal pathogen geographic range in the future around the world, but in this state this has already been observed.

Although famous for its devastation of strawberry gray mold affects table grape as well. Karabulut ''et al.'', 2003 finds it is an especially large part of post-harvest losses. They also describe common treatments and make recommendations. See .

diseases are common trunk diseases. In the southern parts of the state, a Botryosphaeria Dieback caused by '' Lasiodiplodia theobromae'' is almost always the only trunk disease in this crop.

is another common trunk dieback here, caused by . It was first found here by English ''et al.'', 1962 a few years after its discovery elsewhere.

Pests of grape

For insect pests see (GWSS) and (BGSS).

The European Grapevine Moth (EGVM) was an invasive species but was brought under control.

There is ongoing concern that it will invade again. Gutierrez ''et al.'', 2012 finds that climate change has increased its potential invasive range on this crop in the time since its eradication, and will continue to do so. See .

Some vertebrate pests are also significant and UC IPM has management recommendations for them:
* Birds
* California Ground Squirrels ('' Otospermophilus beecheyi'')
* Deer
* Pocket Gophers
* Rabbits
* Voles,
** especially the ('' Microtus californicus'')
** Meadow Voles ('' Microtus drummondii'')
** Meadow Mice ('' Microtus pennsylvanicus'')

Delayed-dormancy in table grape varieties is February in the San Joaquin Valley and December to January in the Coachella Valley. UC IPM provides sampling techniques and management information for delayed-dormancy in table grape.

Budbreak is in March in the SJV and January to February in the Coachella Valley for common table varieties. UC IPM provides monitoring and treatment information for budbreak.

During postharvest in the SJV, table grape growers should monitor for (''Parthenolecanium corni''). UC IPM provides information on this and other pests of postharvest in table grape.

Its anticipated damage to this crop was one of the major reasons for the passage of the LBAM Act of 2007. Despite expectations, this crop was not sufficiently impacted to justify the cost and controversy involved and the action is regarded as a failure. See .

The ('' Harrisina metallica'') is a native pest of this crop. The parasitoids ' and ' were imported in the 1950s but without success. However ''A. misella'' was found in the 1990s to be a vector of a granulovirus of this pest. cites

Breeding of grape

This state has the largest breeding program for table grape in the country. The next largest is at the University of Arkansas, and that was started in part from varieties developed here.

Although there is some resistance to Pierce's Disease in some ''Vitis vinifera'' varieties, none is immune none will be productive and all will die. The Walker group at UC Davis has discovered several monogenic and polygenic PD resistances in several other '' Vitis'' spp. A few years later in December 2019, their , , , , and were plant patented and released for licensing.

AxR1 was a very popular rootstock here until the 1980s. See also .

Fuller ''et al.'', 2014 finds is so valuable in the state's AVAs and the technique of blending has so improved that PM-resistant type are becoming increasingly adopted, despite their history of consumer rejection due to off flavors.

Table and raisin production are associated with higher temperature areas of the state.

The is located in Parlier. SJVASC produces varieties of table and raisin, including the Thomcord. Many of the state's table and raisin varieties have been produced using embryo rescue. The Ramming group in Parlier has been the source of many of these varieties since the 1980s.

Genetic engineering of grape

Up to around 2004 there was little understanding of what non-''Vitis'' genes might provide immunity in grape, and would make good transgenes. several candidate genes have been identified, several have been transferred, and some even produce immune factors that cross the graft union and so can be rootstock-only. Proven transgenes include (the polygalacturonase-inhibiting protein from ''Pyrus communis'' L. cv 'Bartlett', identified by Stotz ''et al.'' at UCD) employed in a large number of transformations at several labs at UCD, (a protein chimera of pGIP and cecropin B) and (another cecropin B chimera) from Dandekar ''et al.'' at UCD and Los Alamos, from the Kirkpatrick lab at UCD, an (catalyzing the disease's synthesis of its diffusible signal factors) from Lindow ''et al.'' at UC Berkeley, and programmed cell death inhibitors from the Gilchrist lab at UCD. (See .)

Treatments in grape

Zakowski & Mace 2022 finds heavy use of fungicides for cosmetic reasons in the state's table grape industry. Pruning produces wounds which may admit pathogens into the trunk of the vine. Brown ''et al.'', 2021 finds that pyraclostrobin continues to have good efficacy against populations in California. cites See and .

The has been very successful since the early 2000s in monitoring and reducing the deadly disease and vector combination of PD and GWSS. It is located in southeast Kern County and involves both trapping and roguing of infected vines. The infestation in Kern has been managed well with a combination of symptomology, molecular surveillance and quantitative vector surveys. The campaign in Kern is a good model for the whole world's efforts against this threat, and for farmer funded voluntary management programs in general.This review cites this research See and .

Research in grape

Table grape growers are charged an assessment statewide for research and treatment for PD and GWSS. For the fiscal year 2009–2010 this contributed $735,000, almost all coming from the southern San Joaquin Valley. See , and .

Lettuce

Lettuce ('' Lactuca sativa'') is commercially grown in the Central Valley, Central Coast, and deserts (the Imperial and Coachella valleys). It is one of the most labor-intensive crops in the state.

Aphids are a major problem for lettuce on the Central Coast.

See ' for an important aphid, and ' and ' for biocontrols.

The Beet Armyworm (BAW, '' Spodoptera exigua'') is a polyphagous insect pest in this crop. There is wide geographic variation in timing with BAW, the San Joaquin Valley being vulnerable more in fall than spring, the Central Coast of California, Central Coast late summer, and lower desert valleys September and October in established crops and November and December in young plants. Natural control is significant, from parasitoids ''Hyposoter Hyposoter exiguae, exiguae'', ''Chelonus insularis'', and ''Lespesia archippivora'', and ' (SeNPV). Discing as soon as possible after harvest and weed control to deny alternate hosts will help. Insecticides used include methoxyfenozide, Bacillus thuringiensis ssp. aizawai, ''Bacillus thuringiensis'' ssp. ''aizawai'', SeNPV, chlorantraniliprole, spinosad, indoxacarb, emamectin benzoate, methomyl, ζ-cypermethrin, and permethrin. In organic agriculture, organic, ''Bacillus thuringiensis'' and Entrust (chemical), Entrust are used but note that any spinosad (including Entrust) will also harm the parasitoids.

Melons

For a common pest see .

Nectarines

Because nectarines are hairless peaches, for most information see .

Cultivars of nectarine

UCANR recommends nectarine cultivar, cultivars for the state:
* August Fire (nectarine), August Fire
* Zee Fire (nectarine), Zee Fire
* September Bright (nectarine), September Bright
* Diamond Bright (nectarine), Diamond Bright
* Spring Bright (nectarine), Spring Bright
* Arctic Pride (nectarine), Arctic Pride
* Arctic Snow (nectarine), Arctic Snow
* August Red (nectarine), August Red
* Diamond Ray (nectarine), Diamond Ray
* Honey Blaze (nectarine), Honey Blaze
* Honey Royale (nectarine), Honey Royale
* Ruby Diamond (nectarine), Ruby Diamond
* Summer Bright (nectarine), Summer Bright
* Summer Fire (nectarine), Summer Fire

Oak

Oaks (genus ''Quercus'') are cultivated for ornamental plant, ornamental purposes and sometimes for acorns. For a devastating disease see .

Okra

Okra is not produced in any significant amount here. Imperial County grows the largest number of acres in the state.

Oleander

Oleander (''Nerium'' spp.) suffers from various ''Xylella fastidiosa'' diseases here and there is some question as to whether and to what degree it shares bacterial plant disease, inoculum with other crops including food crops. See .

Olives

Newton Pierce surveyed olive culture in the state and throughout the country for the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) in 1897.

Olives throughout the state suffer from the introduced species, introduced Olive Fruit Fly here. ''Neofusicoccum mediterraneum'', ''Diplodia mutila'', and ''D. seriata'' cause significant crop disease, disease here.

More specific controls than currently available are needed for ''N. mediterraneum'' in highly susceptible olive cultivar, cultivars, namely Sevillano (olive), Sevillano and Gordal, and early harvest may be needed for ''D. seriata''. See , ', ', and '.

The Olive Oil Commission of California was founded in 2014 as an entity of the State of California. The commission was established as a result of a bill introduced by Lois Wolk. The primary goal is to improve the sales of olive oil grown in California.

Parsley

Soil solarization is an alternative to soil treatment with methyl bromide.

Stapleton ''et al.'', 2005 eliminate almost 100% of annual weeds in this crop with solarization alone. It completely fails against yellow nutsedge however.

Peaches

California is the country's largest grower of peaches, producing about 70% of the total.

The (CFPA) and (CCPA) represent the industry. (Although the CFPA is a separate incorporation, it has always been operated by the CCPA's staff.) The overwhelming majority of the country's peaches are grown here, for sales of $308.3 million. Since 1980 the total value of the harvest has been slightly increasing. The acreage (hectares) planted in peach has been declining however, down to .

cling peach, cling deliveries for processing purposes have been on a downward trend for years. From in 2010, delivered tonnage declined to in 2021. Cling yield shows no clear trend over the same time, bouncing between and .

Prices have been trending mostly upward, from in 2012 to .

CCPA expects 2022 deliveries to be between from a yield of .

UC Davis, UCD hosts one of the major breeding of peach, breeding programs in the country. Most of the private breeding programs for peach in the country are found in California, with a significant amount of the public breeding also being performed here.

Pear

Cultivation is heavily pesticide-dependent. In the 1970s that put growers on the "pesticide treadmill" increasing control costs, pesticide resistance, resistance, and resurgence of previously controlled adversaries. In response the orchards, the UC system, and Sacramento have put together IPM plans which have increased control and decreased applications. Fire Blight is a major concern as it is throughout the continent. Fire Blight is so severe that it largely determines what areas may be commercially successful in pear and which may not, restricted to geographies inhospitable to epidemics. Even so, antibacterials are necessary. Experts believe that major efficacy loss or a regulation of pesticides in the United States, regulatory ban would effectively end Bartlett pear, Bartlett cultivation here, 55% of the country's pears. See and for the most common treatment, .

University of California, Riverside, UCR provides integrated pest management best practices through UCANR. Pear Psylla is one of the most serious of these pests, both due to its speed of insecticide resistance evolution (disambiguation), insecticide resistance evolution and because it vectors the pear decline phytoplasma. The Asian pears ''Pyrus serotina, P. serotina'' and ''Pyrus ussuriensis, P. ussuriensis'' have been widely used as rootstocks but are not being used in new plantings because their severe vulnerability to the decline phytoplasma. The (''Pristiphora abbreviata'', not to be confused with the Pear Slug ''Caliroa cerasi'') is a minor pest here and usually easily controlled. UC IPM recommends Entrust and Success (two Spinosad formulations).

Pistachios

''Ferrisia Ferrisia gilli, gilli'' is an agricultural pest, economically significant pest of pistachio here. ''F. gilli'' was formerly known as a California population of ''Ferrisia virgata, F. virgata'', only being studied sufficiently to recognize that it is distinguishable from ''F. virgata'' due to its severe impact on pistachio and almond in this state. Jackrabbits, cottontails, and brush rabbits mostly damage pistachio trees when other food sources run out in winter or early spring. UC IPM recommends fence, fencing, tree guards, Bait (luring substance), baiting, shooting, animal repellent, repellents, and trapping.

''Alternaria'' and ''Botryosphaeria dothidea'' are significant fungal crop disease, fungal diseases of pistachios here which often receive strobilurin, iprodione, azoxystrobin, and tebuconazole treatments. See ' and '.

Plums

96% of the country's prunes and >70% of plums are grown here. Of that, >80% has come from the Sacramento Valley since the 1960s. For an invasive pest in the Bay Area, see .

Cultivars of plum

UCANR recommends plum cultivar, cultivars for the state:
* Howard Sun (plum), Howard Sun
* Santa Rosa (plum), Santa Rosa
* Angeleno (plum), Angeleno
* Friar (plum), Friar
* Blackamber (plum), Blackamber
* Flavor Fall (plum), Flavor Fall
* Owen T (plum), Owen T
* Fortune (plum), Fortune
* Black Kat (plum), Black Kat
* Black Splendor (plum), Black Splendor
* Black Diamond (plum), Black Diamond
* Black Beaut (plum), Black Beaut
* Flavorich (plum), Flavorich
* Grand Rosa (plum), Grand Rosa
* Simka (plum), Simka
* Catalina (plum), Catalina
* Royal Diamond (plum), Royal Diamond

Pome

Pomes grown here include and . For a common disease see .

Pomegranates

In pomegranate (''Punica granatum''), Black Heart (or "Heart Rot") is one of the most common diseases, as it is around the world. See .

'

For ''Prunus'' spp. see .

Raspberry

Over 80% of US raspberries ('' Rubus'' spp.) are grown here. The country's consumption has increased eightfold between 2001 and 2021. This crop is 15% of the state's fresh berry sales. Acreage (number of hectares) before 2014 is unknown, but in that year produced selling for $434 million, then the next year produced worth $547 million, and in 2016 produced for $358 million, worth more than the peach harvest and four times the pear harvest. The state has the opportunity to capture much of the market because most of the raspberry (55%), blackberry, and blueberry market in the country is imported, with Mexico supplying 98% of imported raspberry and they have probably reached their limit. California produces the most fresh market red raspberries, while Washington is highest for the processed market. Because the recent expansion has taken acres that had been pasture, pest and disease pressure is very small making organic agriculture, organic an easy option. The available acreage for that kind of conversion may have reached the limit however. Pre-transplant soil fumigation is necessary in conventional agriculture, conventional, making organic inviable if this kind of new(-to caneberry) acreage is not available. Driscoll's is the marketer of 90% of raspberries from California and Mexico sold into the US.

Leaf Spot is not common here. See , or for an easily confused disease which does ''not'' affect this crop, see .

Rice

By 2006, California produced the Rice production in the United States, second-largest rice crop in the United States, after Arkansas, with production concentrated in six counties north of Sacramento, California, Sacramento.

California's production is dominated by short- and medium-grain Japanese rice, ''japonica'' varieties, including cultivars developed for the local climate such as Calrose, which makes up as much as 85% of the state's crop.

Small grains

UC ANR (University of California Division of Agriculture and Natural Resources) has a program specifically for small grains. UCANR provides pest management information and grain farming, cultivation practices and organizes farmer education events. The small grains grown here are primarily wheat, barley, oats, and triticale, see and . UC-IPM also produces publications specifically for pest management in these crops.

Although small grains are not a large part of the overall agricultural productivity of the state, they are important enough in particular locations for ANR to have agricultural extension, Extension workers especially for San Diego County, Kings County, California, Kings County, San Joaquin County, Siskiyou County, Lassen County, Sutter County, California, Sutter- and Yuba County, California, Yuba- and Colusa County, California, Colusa- Counties, Davis, California, Davis, Kern County, Woodland, California, Woodland, Yolo County, Tulelake, California, Tulelake, Siskiyou, Tulare, California, Tulare, and Sonoma County, Sonoma.

is an industry initiative which also cooperates extensively with the University of California breeding programs. GSG connects future farmers, present farmers, seed suppliers, processors, and consumers.

See for a weed of these crops.

Stonefruit

Stonefruits are crops of the genus ''Prunus''. For the largest harvests by weight see , , , , and .

Diseases of stonefruit

For common fungal diseases see ', ', and for the fungicide see .

UCD's FPS performs stonefruit disease, disease testing (especially for viruses), stonefruit variety, variety identification testing, and supplies budstock and rootstock. See also .

Breeding of stonefruit

So much of North America's stonefruit is grown here that almost all available propagation material is adapted to California specifically. Few accessions are available which are appropriate anywhere else. Even so, these are really made for the previous situation in the state, in which lower densities prevailed and dwarfing rootstocks were not used. With increasing mechanized agriculture, mechanization there is a need for such rootstocks.

Pests of stonefruit

For a leaf gall pest see .

Strawberries

Strawberry, Strawberries (''Fragaria'' × ''ananassa'') in the United States are almost entirely grown in California 86% of fresh and 98% of frozen in 2017 with Florida a distant second. The 2017 harvest was worth $3,100,215,000. Of that 30.0% was from Monterey County, California, Monterey, 28.6% from Ventura County, California, Ventura, 20.0% from Santa Barbara County, California, Santa Barbara, 10.0% from San Luis Obispo County, California, San Luis Obispo, and 9.2% from Santa Cruz County, California, Santa Cruz. The Watsonville/Salinas, California, Salinas strawberry zone in Santa Cruz/Monterey, and the Oxnard zone in Ventura, contribute heavily to those concentrations.

Production has risen almost monotonicity, monotonically, from 2005 when were harvested, yielding , for a total yield of . The average price being , the 2005 season's harvest sold for $1,122,834,000.

The California Strawberry Commission is the Agriculture Department body which advocates for strawberry growers. The CSC provides information for both growers and consumers. Some towns have annual strawberry festivals, see . The Driscoll's company began with strawberries here and still grows and sells here, and they have since expanded to other states, countries, and types of berries.

California Polytechnic State University, San Luis Obispo, Cal Poly runs the for both research, and producer education.

Labor costs have increased drastically since 2018 especially in this crop, see .

Timber

Almost 40% of the state is forest, . Of that was maintained as timberland of which about 77% is softwood. Most lumber grown here is Construction in California, used here in the construction industry and some additional lumber is imported from Western United States, nearby states and Western Canada, provinces.

Tomatoes

Fresh market tomatoes

The Federal Risk Management Agency provides crop insurance for fresh market tomato here, through the regional office in Davis. 90% of FMT here comes from nine counties, San Joaquin County, California, San Joaquin County, Merced County, California, Merced, Fresno, San Diego County, California, San Diego, Kern, Stanislaus County, California, Stanislaus, Kings County, California, Kings, Tulare, and Sacramento County, California, Sacramento. In 1999 were planted, yielding on average , for a gross dollar yield of .

Tomatoes contribute a mean of per year in Mediterranean agriculture systems.

widely incorporate Meloidogyne resistance, ''Meloidogyne'' resistance.

Walnuts

California walnuts account for nearly all the walnuts grown in the United States. In 2017, walnut production was the seventh most valuable agricultural commodity in California, valued at $1.59 billion in cash receipts.

Walnuts contribute a mean of emissions per year in Mediterranean agriculture systems.

Wheat

Wheat stripe rust is believed to have been present at or before the 1770s due to newspaper reports at the time, and due to the greater prevalence of stripe than leaf or stem. Hungerford (1923) and Hungerford & Owens (1923) found stripe on wheat here and almost all other western US, western states.

As first speculated by Tollenaar & Houston 1967, in some years fungal plant disease, inoculum from the Sierra Nevadas initiates the state's epidemics. Wheat sown in the fall (autumn) in the valleys suffers from stripe rust carried from wild grasses in the mountains. This is not the only source however, as stripe will also overwinter in Sacramento Valley wheat cover crop, cover. See .

Wine

Livestock

Fowl

The domestic fowl industry suffers from avian malaria. (''Gallus gallus''/''G. domesticus'') and (''Anas platyrhynchos domesticus'') are commonly infected, as well as various wild birds. Testing has been done since the Herman group made the first reports of ''P. relictum'' infection, in Herman 1951, Herman ''et al.'', 1954, and Reeves ''et al.'', 1954. (See and ' for the parasite and vectors, and for testing.)

Honeybees

Honeybees (''Apis mellifera'') in and around Riverside, California, Riverside developed DDT resistance in the 1950s.

Extensive use of DDT in citrus may have been responsible. (See also , and .)

Regions

Central Valley

The Central Valley of California is one of the world's most productive agricultural regions. More than 230 crops are grown there. On less than one percent of the total farmland in the United States, the Central Valley produces eight percent of the nation's agricultural output by value: US$43.5 billion in 2013. The top four counties in agricultural sales (2007 data) ''in the U.S.'' are in California's Central Valley: Fresno ($3.731 billion), Tulare ($3.335 billion), Kern ($3.204 billion), and Merced ($2.330 billion).

Its agricultural productivity relies on irrigation both from surface water diversions and from groundwater pumping (wells). About one-sixth of the irrigated land in the U.S. is in the Central Valley. Central Valley groundwater pollution is an ongoing environmental issue in the area.

There are 6,000 almond growers who produced more than 1.8 million tonnes in 2013, about 60 percent of the world's supply.

Parts of the Valley are agricultural quarantine, quarantine due to an ongoing extirpation, pest eradication. The Peach Fruit Fly was found in and this is a threat not only here, but could spread to the entire state, and to a lesser degree the entire country and other locations around the world. See .

Salinas Valley

The Salinas Valley, located within Monterey County, is one of the most productive agricultural regions in California. Monterey County grows over 50% of the national production for leaf lettuce, head lettuce, and celery. It also produces significant percentages of the country's broccoli, spinach, cauliflower, and strawberries. The area is also a significant producer of organic produce, with 68,868 acres in cultivation and annual sales of $412,347,000.

Organic farming

California has more Organic certification, certified organic farms than any other state. In 2016, more than a million acres in the state were certified organic. CA grows 90% or more of the U.S. production of Organic almonds, artichokes, avocados, broccoli, cauliflower, celery, dates, figs, grapes, strawberries, lemons, lettuce, plums, and walnuts.

There are two primary laws that regulate organic production: at a federal level, the Organic Foods Production Act of 1990 and at a state level, the California Organic Food and Farming Act of 2016. Both laws lay out standards for production, processing, handling and retailing that must be followed in order to label a product as "organic". The USDA, California Organic Products Advisory Committee, and the California County Agricultural Commissioners monitor and ensure these standards are followed by administering enforcement actions for any violations.

Any agricultural operation selling more than $5,000 in products per year is required to acquire organic certification, if they seek to sell their products under the organic label. Multiple organizations are accredited to certify operations organic.

Environmental and natural resources

Water use

The largest overall Water in California, water users in California are the environment, agriculture and urban/ municipal uses. In an average year, about 40% of Water in California, California's water consumption, or approximately , is farm water, used for agricultural purposes. However, the exact proportion of total water usage for agriculture can vary widely between 'wet' and 'dry' years, where in wet years, agriculture is responsible for closer to 30% of total water consumption and in dry years, agriculture is responsible for closer to 60% of total water consumption. Water for agriculture is used to irrigate more than of cropland annually.

Water for agriculture comes from two primary sources: surface water and groundwater. Surface waters include natural lakes, rivers, and streams, as well as large network of human-built reservoirs and a complex distribution system of aqueducts and canals that carry water from the location of the source to the agricultural users. Groundwater aquifers range in depth and accessibility across the state, and historically have been used to supplement surface water supplies in dry years.

California is one of the top five states in water use for livestock. Water withdrawals for livestock use in California were /day in 2010.

Saudi Arabian companies and individuals have bought land here and in Arizona to benefit from subsidized water. This has produced criticism because the hay grown is Saudi-US trade, exported to Saudi Arabia.

Water quality

Agricultural impacts on water quality concentrate around concerns of the following contaminants: nutrients, pesticides, salts, pollutants, sediment, pathogens, and heavy metals. These contaminants enter water bodies through above-ground surface runoff of rainwater or excess irrigation water, or percolating through the soil and leaching into groundwater. Water quality concerns affect most regions of the state and tend to be exacerbated during periods of drought.

At present, all irrigated agricultural operations in the State are required to participate in the Irrigated Lands Regulatory Program. The regulatory program began after the California Legislature passed Senate Bill 390 (SB390) in 1990, that eliminated a blanket waiver for agricultural operations to discharge wastewater without any specific environmental standards.

Water supply

A major source for Southern California's water supply, both agricultural and urban, is the Colorado River from which an aqueduct has been built to transport the water from the river to Riverside, California, Riverside. Colorado River irrigation is essential for agriculture to the Salton Sea Basin, which supports key agriculturally productive areas such as the Imperial Valley. Another aspect of the agricultural water supply in California is the transfer of water that takes place from northern to southern California. In northern California, the Shasta Dam contains the flow of the Sacramento River, preserving water for California's use, and pumping stations in the Sacramento–San Joaquin River Delta, California Delta extract water transferring that water across the San Joaquin Valley and southward. A key component to the distribution of the water supply are the irrigation districts and water agencies who are responsible for delegating water as to meet the demand of those within the area as well as clarify and legal arbitration as to water rights.

The agency tasked with overseeing the state's water supply and any projects associated with the upkeep of the supply is the California Department of Water Resources (CDWR). As part of the 2019-2020 California Spending Plan, the CDWR received $2.336 billion with $833 million going towards projects overseen by the California Natural Resources Agency and $1.503 billion going towards the control board supervised by the California Environmental Protection Agency. One of the CDWR's major projects is the California State Water Project, State Water Project (SWP) which distributes 34% of the water that flows through its various channels. The SWP also is one of the largest suppliers of Hydroelectricity, hydroelectric power in the state.

The invasive quagga mussel, quagga- and zebra mussel, zebra-mussels reached the state in about 2006 and threaten the already limited supply of farm water. The mussels have continued to spread and present an ever-expanding threat to pipelines.

Air pollution

In 2014, California agriculture soils contributed to 51% of statewide greenhouse gas emissions. California's Mediterranean climate supports irrigation events such as nitrification which encourage nitrous oxide production. Mean nitrous oxide emissions (the biggest contributor to ozone depletion of all the major agricultural greenhouse gases) have been reported to be "four times higher in irrigated compared to rain-fed systems". Another factor which frequently contributes to increased N2O emissions are warm soil temperatures (a common occurrence in California).

History

Pre-1850

Peake & H. J. Fleure, Fleure 1927 propose that many crop wild relatives and a climate with both a rainy season and a dry season are necessary for an area to become a center of agriculture. Before human arrival a wide variety of crop wild relatives (CWRs) were already found here and although most of land has a monotonously desert or near-desert rain supply some has Mediterranean climate, a climate type called Mediterranean.

Since initial contact between Europeans and Indigenous peoples of the Americas, Indigenous American peoples, the topic of Native American agriculture has been debated. While agriculture in pre-contact California certainly did not fit into the Western definition of agriculture, the keen stewardship of California's natural ecosystem by Indigenous peoples of California, Indigenous Californians to achieve the best possible output of resources is “agricultural,” with California's ecosystems acting as a large, unbounded agricultural site. Because of this difference in ideology, agricultural practices in pre-contact California often took a different form than those of Europe.

Some California hunter-gatherer tribes, including the Owens Valley Paiute, developed irrigation. Native Californians were skilled at gathering materials from plants at all times of the year, allowing the consistent gathering of materials from any and all List of California native plants, local plants. Depending on when various plants—including Succulent plant, succulents, flowers, and trees—bloomed or became ripe, different aspects of the plant could be accessed or harvested by Native California peoples.

Native Californians also developed strategies when it came to competing with animals for resources. The Kashaya Pomo, for example, timed their harvest of dogwood to be before insects and worms would be able to access the inner parts of the plant. Indigenous Californians also developed strategies for acquiring black oak acorns directly from tree branches using a long pole, increasing harvest yields that would otherwise have been disturbed by animals.

Black oak acorn harvests were further increased by Native American use of fire in ecosystems, cultural burning, which stimulated acorn growth and increased biodiversity in the area. Cultural burning was commonly practiced by throughout California to maintain a healthy landscape that produced quality resources, as the Karuk, Yurok, Hupa peoples all regularly burned areas of bear grass and California hazelnut and to encourage the growth of stronger stems that could be used for Basket weaving, basketry.

In the late 1700s, Franciscan missionaries established Spanish missions in California. Like earlier Spanish missions established in Baja California, these missions were surrounded by agricultural land, growing crops from Europe and the Americas, and raising animals originating from Europe. Indigenous workers from Baja California made up a large part of the initial labor force on California missions. In the early 1800s, this flow of laborers from Baja California had largely stopped, and the missions relied on converts from local tribes. By 1806, over 20,000 Mission Indians were "attached" to the California missions. As missions were expected to become largely self-sufficient, farming was a critically important Spanish missions in California#Mission industries, Mission industry.
George Vancouver visited Mission San Buenaventura in 1793 and noted the wide variety of crops grown: apples, pears, plums, figs, oranges, grapes, peaches, pomegranates, plantain, banana, coconut, sugar cane, indigo, various herbs, and prickly pear.
Livestock was raised for meat, wool, leather, and tallow, and for cultivating the land. In 1832, at the height of their prosperity, the missions collectively owned over 150,000 cattle and over 120,000 sheep. They also raised horses, goats, and pigs.

While the Spanish were the most successful farmers active in California in the early 1800s, they were not the only ones. In 1812, the Russians established Fort Ross, California, Fort Ross in what is now Sonoma County, California, and intended the fort in part as an agricultural supply point for other Russian activity on the west coast. Despite Russian plans for the colony, agriculture at Fort Ross had low yields, significantly lower than the California missions. Inefficient farming methods, labour shortages, coastal fog, and rodents all contributed to limit agriculture at the fort.

The Spanish (1784–1810) and Mexican (1819–1846) governments made a large number of land grants to private individuals from 1785 to 1846. These Ranchos of California, ranchos included land taken from the missions following government-imposed Mexican secularization act of 1833, secularization in 1833, after which the missions' productivity declined significantly. The ranchos were focused on cattle, and California hide trade, hides and tallow were their main products. There was no market for large quantities of beef (before refrigeration and railroads) until the California Gold Rush.

1850–1900

In 1848, before the Gold Rush, the population of CA was approximately 15,000, not counting Native Americans. By 1852, there were over 250,000 people in the state. and by 1870, 560,000 people. This rapid population growth drove an increase in importation of agricultural products, and, within a few years, a massive growth in in-state agriculture. In the first years of the gold rush, the state relied on agricultural imports arriving by ship, from Australia, Chile, and Hawaii. During these years, there was rapid growth in vegetable farming for local markets. This was followed by an expansion of grain farming. A shift in the economic dominance of grain farming over cattle raising was marked by the passage of the California "No-Fence Law" of 1874. This repealed the Trespass Act of 1850, which had required farmers to protect their planted fields from free-ranging cattle. The repeal of the Trespass Act required that ranchers fence stock in, rather than farmers fencing cattle out. The ranchers were faced with either the high expense of fencing large grazing tracts or selling their cattle at ruinous prices. By the 1890s, California was 2nd in US wheat production, producing over one million tons of wheat per year, but monocrop wheat farming had depleted the soil in some areas resulting in reduced crops.

Irrigation was almost nonexistent in California in 1850, but by 1899, 12 percent of the state's improved farmland was irrigated.

Luther Burbank moved to Santa Rosa, California in 1875, and developed numerous commercially successful varieties of plants over the next 50 years.

1900–1950

The 1902 Newlands Reclamation Act funded irrigation projects on arid lands in 20 states including California.

In 1905, the California legislature passed the University Farm Bill, which called for the establishment of a farm school for the University of California (at the time, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley was the sole campus of the university). The commission took a year to select a site for the campus, a tiny town then known as Davisville. UC Davis opened its doors as the "University Farm" to 40 degree students (all male) from UC Berkeley in January 1909.

In 1919, the California Department of Food and Agriculture was established. The department covers state food safety, state protection from invasive species, and promoting the state's agricultural industry.

The Dust Bowl of the 1930s drove many people from the American prairie, and a significant number of these economic migrants relocated to California. Poor migrants from Oklahoma and nearby states were sometimes referred to as Okies, generally a pejorative term.
In 1933, the state saw a number of California agricultural strikes of 1933, agricultural labor strikes, with the largest actions against cotton growers. Cherry, grape, peach, pear, sugar beet, and tomato workers were also involved.

In 1942, the United States began the Bracero program. Lasting until 1964, this agreement established decent living conditions and a minimum wage for Mexican workers in the United States.

1950–2000

In 1965, the Williamson Act became law, providing property tax relief to owners of California farmland and open-space land in exchange for agreement that the land will not be developed.

The 1960s and 1970s saw major farm worker strikes including the 1965 Delano grape strike and the 1970 Salad Bowl strike. In 1975, the California Agricultural Labor Relations Act of 1975 was enacted,"Governor Signs Historic Farm Labor Legislation." ''Los Angeles Times.'' June 5, 1975. establishing the right to collective bargaining for farmworkers in California, a first in U.S. history.Hurt, R. Douglas. ''American Agriculture: A Brief History.'' Lafayette, Ind.: Purdue University Press, 2002. Individuals with prominent roles in farm worker organizing in this period include Cesar Chavez, Dolores Huerta, Larry Itliong, and Philip Vera Cruz.

In the late 1980s the Ives floriculture, flower ranch was the site of a notorious employment case. This ranch was in Ventura County, Ventura and involved Mixtec people, Mixtec farm workers (from the Oaxaca state of southern Mexico) and illegal employment conditions. The ranch paid $1.5million in unpaid wages and fines.

Through 1995 there were 50,000 Mixtecs every year in California agriculture. They were about 70% of the 10,000 agricultural laborers in San Diego County, and had been spreading northwards to also work in Oxnard, Santa Maria, California, Santa Maria and Madera County, California, Madera County, and even into Oregon and Washington. They were usually not the only indigenous Mexican ethnic groups Zapotec people, Zapotecs and Mayan people, Mayans were also usually working the same jobs. In the 1990s it was common to arrive in Arizona first, work on an Arizonan farm, and then move here.

2001–present

In the 2000s and 2010s, Californians voted for propositions which established new protections for farm animals. 2008 California Proposition 2 and 2018 California Proposition 12 both established minimum requirements for farming egg-laying hens, breeding pigs, and calves raised for veal.
Few veal and pig factory farm operations exist in California, so these propositions mostly affect farmers who raise California's 15 million egg-laying hens.

Agricultural crime

California nut crimes have involved the theft of millions of dollars of nuts (almonds, pistachios, cashews and pecans) in multiple incidents since 2013.

Water theft for agriculture has been an issue in times of drought, with the State assessing fines up to $1.5 Million.

Pests

Despite its expansive geography, some pests are so severe, so polyphagous, and/or so wide-ranging as to be economically significant to the entire state.

The (''Amyelois transitella'') first entered from Arizona in 1942 and quickly began attacking walnut, date palm, and fig. (See , , and . Despite its common name, being only a minor pest of citrus.) In the decades since it has become a notorious pest of almond, pistachio, and pomegranate and remains problematic for walnut and fig as well. (See , , and .) First flight of NOW begins around April 17 and ends around May 29, and third flight is about August 8 to September 12. Second flight is not as much of a concern.

The (''Epiphyas postvittana'', often abbreviated to LBAM) is a leafroller moth belonging to the lepidopteran family Tortricidae. Despite its common name it is a pest of a polyphagy, wide range of crops, not just apples, see , , and others. The moth was confirmed to be present in California in 2007, and spraying programs in 2007–2008 lead to the Light brown apple moth controversy. Tavener ''et al.'', 2011 finds novaluron works well but only when carried by horticultural oil, horticultural mineral oil. .

(''Diaphorina citri'') are a major invasive agricultural pest, invasive threat to citrus. (See .)

Sellers ''et al.'', 2018 finds and (jackrabbits, hares, other rabbits) don't seem to be a pest of walnut orchards here (see ). On the other hand, jackrabbits, cottontails, and brush rabbits certainly are a problem for pistachios (see ). The lagomorph biocontrol myxoma virus is indigenous here (that is, it is endemic (epidemiology), epidemiologically endemic) in native lagomorphs. This was first disclosed in Marshall & Regnery 1960 a&b. M & R found it in the tapeti (''Sylvilagus brasiliensis'') and the brush rabbit (''Sylvilagus bachmani'').

Olives throughout the state suffer from the introduced species, introduced (''Bactrocera oleae'') here. First detected outside its traditional Old World co-occurrence with the host tree in Los Angeles County in November 1998, it has since spread throughout California and into Baja California, Baja and Sonora. OFF is native to the Mediterranean basin and appears in some of the earliest written documents of human history, and is now found throughout much of the world.

Particular strains of OFF are associated with particular list of olive cultivars, varieties here. Burrack & Zalom 2008 find females have strong oviposition preferences for particular varieties and their offspring show better life history performance on those preferred varieties. The introduction here has spurred much parasitoid research, hoping to control them with biological controls. Daane ''et al.'', 2008, Sime ''et al.'', 2006, Sime ''et al.'', 2007, Yokohama ''et al.'', 2006, and Yokohama ''et al.'', 2008 all were undertaken to serve this state's need for parasitoids. Yokohama ''et al.'', 2008 achieves 60% control in cage trials using a Psyttalia concolor, ''Psyttalia'' cf. ''concolor''. Daane ''et al.'', 2008 finds ''Psyttalia lounsburyi, P. lounsburyi'' is especially specific to OFF over other possible hosts, and its selectivity makes it an attractive option. Daane ''et al.'' 2009 discloses an undescribed Pteromalus myopitae, ''Pteromalus'' sp. nr. ''myopitae'' first found here. Overall there is much concern about offtarget impacts if these were to be released.

are common crop pests here. ' is one of the most common, especially for lettuce. See also , and ' and ' for the two most common biocontrols.

here, especially in cherries. In cherry orchards the most common are crows (''Corvus brachyrhynchos''), crowned sparrows: (''Zonotrichia'' spp.), European starlings (''Sturnus vulgaris''), house finches (''Carpodacus mexicanus''), house sparrows ''(Passer domesticus''), scrub-jays (''Aphelocoma californica''), and (''Pica nuttalli''), but also in apple, blueberry, and grape, and the American Robin is a problem for some of these. See also for a repellent.

The (GWSS, ''Glassy-winged sharpshooter, Homalodisca vitripennis'', syn. ''H. coagulata'') is a vector of Pierce's Disease and other ''Xylella fastidiosa'' diseases here. Probably present since the late 1980s, the GWSS was only confirmed here in 1994. GWSS was not obviously a threat until August 1999 when it vectored PD to over of vineyard in Temecula, Riverside County, forcing its destruction. GWSS was first detected in Solano County, Solano in November 2021, and although absent from adjascent Napa County, Napa is considered a high risk for introduced species, introduction. The staff of the does inspections of all material entering the county to prevent that from happening. GWSS is such a problem in Fresno County, Fresno that there are permanent agricultural quarantine, quarantine, pest monitoring, monitoring, and eradication activities there.

In 1997 the (BGSS, ''Graphocephala atropunctata'', the primary PD vector) arrived here and the two have combined badly ever since. Besides vectoring PD they are also themselves a sucking pest and Hewitt ''et al.'', 1949 found they will often additionally go through reproduction on the vines. See , , and .

The (''Lobesia botrana'', EGVM) was present from at least 2009 through 2014. A vineyard, block in Napa County, Napa suffered a 100% crop loss in 2009 due to a burrowing caterpillar, worm. This was confirmed to be the EGVM by Gilligan ''et al.'', on September 30, 2009 (published in 2011). (It is native to southern Italy and may have arrived elsewhere in the state, possibly being detected as early as 2007 by Mastro ''et al.'', and published in 2010). Both USDA and CDFA impose agricultural quarantine, quarantines if two moths are found within of each other within one biological life cycle, lifecycle span. At first the quarantine zone was around the detection sites. In 2010, 40,000 insect trap, traps revealed an expanded presence in Fresno County, Fresno, Mendocino County, Mendocino, Merced County, Merced, Monterey County, Monterey, Napa, San Joaquin County, San Joaquin, Santa Clara County, Santa Clara, Santa Cruz County, California, Santa Cruz, Solano County, Solano, and Sonoma County, Sonoma. The first detection in Sonoma was around Kenwood, California, Kenwood on March 29, 2010, then a total of 59 across the County that year. In 2011 only nine were detected on two sites in Sonoma, and despite the quarantine the pest spread to Nevada County, California, Nevada County in 2011. The quarantine was lifted in Fresno, Mendocino, Merced, and San Joaquin in February 2012, only one insect was found in Sonoma for the year, the quarantine was lifted in Nevada, Santa Clara, and Santa Cruz counties in December, and was greatly shrunk in Solano and Sonoma in the same month. No detections occurred in Sonoma in 2013. The quarantine was lifted in Solano in 2014 but one EGVM was found in Sonoma for the year and so the quarantine remained in Napa and Sonoma. The last detection being in June 2014 in Sonoma, all USDA and state quarantine and trapping activities ended with the declaration in August 2016 of a successful extirpation, eradication. See also .

(''Prionoxystus robiniae''), (''Blapstinus Blapstinus fuliginosus, fuliginosus''), (''Carpophilus hemipterus''), (''Carpophilus freemani''), (''Carpophilus mutilatus''), (''Cotinis texana'' syn. ''C.mutabilis''),
(''Aceria Aceria fici, fici''), (''Lepiosaphes conchiformis''), and Navel orangeworm are among the most important pests of fig here. (See and .)

(''Popillia japonica'') has been repeatedly found here and repeatedly extirpation, eradicated. Monitoring and eradication continue especially because of the polyphagy, wide host range of the grubs but also due to the grubs' and adults' destructiveness.

The (''Acalitus phloeocoptes'' (Nalepa)) was first confirmed here in Santa Clara County in February 2019, but may have been found in northern Marin County, Marin in early 2014. Certainly since 2019 it has become widespread in the Bay Area, reaching Contra Costa County, California, Contra Costa, Alameda County, Alameda, San Mateo County, San Mateo, Santa Cruz County, California, Santa Cruz, Sonoma County, Sonoma, and north into Western Oregon. So far PBGM is known to be a problem on plum and pluot (see ) and not on other stonefruits, especially not almond, even almonds nearby to infested orchards.

The (SLW, Bemisia tabaci strain B, ''Bemisia tabaci'' strain B) was first noticed here in the fall of 1991. First appearing in the valleys of Deserts of California, the state's deserts, it has caused about $500 million in agricultural losses here through 2019. Further economic effects include $774 million in lost sales, $112.5 million in lost personal income, and the loss of 12,540 jobs. SLW is intractable in the southern deserts, especially in the Imperial Valley, the Palo Verde Valley, the Coachella Valley, and the southern part of the San Joaquin Valley. In the SJV this is worst on cotton.

A , ''Bagrada hilaris'' was first detected here in 2008 in San Diego County, California, San Diego County, Orange County, California, Orange County, LA County, 2009 in Ventura County, California, Ventura County, Riverside County, California, Riverside County, and Imperial County, California, Imperial County; 2010 in Kern County, San Bernardino County, California, San Bernardino County; no new discoveries here in 2011; 2012 in Santa Barbara County, California, Santa Barbara County & San Luis Obispo County, California, San Luis Obispo County; 2013 in Monterey County, California, Monterey County, Santa Cruz County, California, Santa Cruz County, San Benito County, California, San Benito County, Fresno County, California, Fresno County, Tulare County, California, Tulare County, San Francisco; 2014 in Inyo County, California, Inyo County, Kings County, California, Kings County, Merced County, California, Merced County, Stanislaus County, California, Stanislaus County, Santa Clara County, California, Santa Clara County, Alameda County, California, Alameda County, San Mateo County, California, San Mateo County, and Yolo County, California, Yolo County. From here it has become an invasive crop pest, invasive pest of ''Brassica''s throughout the southwest US, neighboring Coahuila, and the Big Island of Hawaii. The most valuable crop threatened is . Much of the research on this pest in this part of the world has been performed by the Palumbo group at the University of Arizona.

s are common pests here including the (WTPB, ''Lygus hesperus''). A vacuum collector is often used for WTPB in strawberry, called the BugVac. (See also .)

The (SWD, ''Drosophila suzukii'') is a major insect pest of soft body fruits here, especially grape, strawberry, tomato, cherry, raspberry and other caneberries, peach and nectarine, fig, and blueberry. is a parasitoid which has been successful as a biocontrol here.

Other ' species include ' and ' which vector sour rot and bunch rot pathogens between grape bunches.

Turelli ''et al.'', 1991 uses a genetically modified Wolbachia, genetically modified ''Wolbachia'' to suppress ''D. simulans'' to suppress its vectored diseases here. (This has become a widely known example of ''Wolbachia'' use, and has informed European Union, European decision making on vector control.)

The (''Estigmene acrea'') is very common here, but usually causes no damage because they are a native pest with many natural enemies acting as biocontrols. SMC can be significant in strawberry, see .

The (''Bactrocera Bactrocera zonata, zonata'' Saunders) has been repeatedly introduced and quickly eradicated here, in 1984 and in 2006. Then on September 29 and/or 30, 2020, three PFF were found in Chowchilla, Madera County. This presents a tremendous hazard not only to the area but to the state, and indeed the entire country. Because the pest may spread from here to other countries, trading partners including the European Union, EU and New Zealand are also concerned. They are considering restricting importation of fruits and vegetables from the state. As a result, the Secretary of CDFA, Karen Ross has declared a biosecurity emergency and extirpation, eradication efforts using methyl eugenol lures are underway. Especially an immediate concern are California's $2.10b citrus-, $875m stonefruit-, and $1.19b tomato industries.

(See also , , , and .)

The (Figeater Beetle, ''Cotinis mutabilis'') is occasionally a pest of ripened fruit, including apricot, caneberry, fig, grape, peach, and plum. The larvae/grubs are harmless however.

For s (BAW, '' Spodoptera exigua'') in strawberry and lettuce see and .

First identified here in 1992 in La Mesa, California, La Mesa, San Diego County by Haagsma ''et al.'', the (''Coptotermes formosanus'') has been here since at least 10 years prior. As with every other infestation anywhere in the world, it has never been eradicated, and is still present at the original La Mesa site.

In the time since there have been new infestations mostly suspected to be independent introductions in Canyon Lake (California), Canyon Lake, Riverside County in 2020, Rancho Santa Fe, California, Rancho Santa Fe, San Diego County in 2021, Highland Park, Los Angeles, Highland Park, Los Angeles County in 2021. The Formosan Termite is a pest of sugarcane, and for another host see , but it is most often a structural pest.

s (''Diabrotica balteata'', ''Acalymma vittatum'', ''Diabrotica undecimpunctata, D. undecimpunctata'') are common pests here. UC IPM provides recommended practices for apricot, see also .

(''Daktulosphaira vitifoliae'') is a perennial aphid problem here. The industry suffered a wipeout in the 1980s due to overreliance on one, non-resistant rootstock. Islam ''et al.'', 2013 explains some of the genetic diversity of the population here by sexual reproduction, but their sampling leaves open other possibilities for the remainder. They also find two major subpopulations differentiated by rootstock association: AxR1 associated and those associated with all others. cites

The detection of the (''Rhynchophorus ferrugineus'') in 2010 was very concerning to this valuable industry. It most likely arrived with in live palms which are commonly sold internationally. The adults flew up to in a day, and over 3 to 5 days that allowed dispersal up to . A tremendous effort was made to trap and pest eradication, eradicate, UCR's Center for Invasive Species Research recommended mostly insecticides, and quick destruction of any palms found to be infested. Pheromone attractant traps were very effective. The (''Washingtonia filifera'') and the (''Chamaerops humilis'') seemed to be resistant. The last sighting was on January 18, 2012. Three years later on January 20, 2015, USDA's APHIS declared the eradication successful. Its relative the South American palm weevil (''Rhynchophorus palmarum, R. palmarum'') has killed increasing numbers of Canary Island date palms (''Phoenix canariensis'') and is expected to become a significant pest of dates in the future. For a common host see .

Several ' mosquitoes are common here including ', ', and '. Insecticides are often used in mosquito control, their control and as a result some species have undergone insecticide resistance evolution (disambiguation), resistance evolution. Mouches ''et al.'', 1986 finds one population achieved this via gene amplification of an esterase.

See also .

The southern part of the state suffers from the (Spotted Alfalfa Aphid, ''Therioaphis trifolii''). Stern & Reynolds 1958 finds that from the beginning of the 1950s to the end of the decade severe parathion resistance had rapidly developed there.

The common (''Musca domestica'') is economically significant in poultry production worldwide, including in California. From 1964 to 1969 Georghiou & Hawley 1972 finds rapid evolution of organophosphate resistance in a poultry facility in Moorpark. The most common permethrin kdr allele, permethrin ''kdr'' allele here is ''kdr-his'', although ''kdr (allele), kdr'' and ''super-kdr'' are also present. (This profile is also found in New Mexico, New Mexican, Florida, Floridian, North Carolina, North Carolinian, New York (state), New York, and Montanan populations.)

The (''Pectinophora gossypiella'') was devastating to cotton growers here and throughout Southwest United States, the southwest. Chu ''et al.'', 1996 reports a management program in the Imperial Valley in which government imposed practices successfully reduced populations. This bollworm is now extirpation, extirpated from the entire country including this state, thanks to the efforts of Osama El-Lissy and his collaborators. See also .

The (Mexican fruit fly, ''Anastrepha ludens'') has repeatedly invaded southern California, the southern part of the state. Sterile insect technique (SIT) has been used to great success to pest eradication, eradicate them every time, both here and in Texas. (See also .)

The (Mediterranean fruit fly, ''Ceratitis capitata'') has also been controlled with SIT both here and in Florida, although before 1980 both states used malathion baits. Eradication by SIT was accomplished with the help of the Nuclear Techniques in Food and Agriculture program, a joint effort of the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization and the International Atomic Energy Agency (FAO-IAEA). (See also .) Studies of the Medfly invasion here show that there have been many almost-invasions at List of airports in California, the state's airports and other ports, most of which have failed to established species, establish. This has informed pest quarantine, quarantine and invasion biology efforts and studies on the Medfly around the world.

' is a genus of spider mites. Three species are common on cotton here including the (''Tetranychus Tetranychus pacificus, pacificus'') and the (''Tetranychus urticae, T. urticae''). and they are hard to distinguish because they are sympatric. Distinguishing them is nonetheless necessary, because they differ widely in insecticide resistance, with the PSM the worst. The PSM and 2SSM are also significant in peach here. (See and .) Two-Spotted Spider Mite is also a major pest of strawberry, see Production of strawberries in California.

s (''Aphis gossypii'', Melon Aphid) afflict cotton and melon crops here. Insecticides are commonly used, and this has produced insecticide resistance, resistance and may also contaminate their honeydew (secretion), honeydew. Insecticide contaminated honeydew may harm beneficial insects. See also .

The (''Scirtothrips perseae'') and (''Oligonychus perseae'') are two invasive pests here. For a host see .

The (''Chloridea virescens'', ''Heliothis virescens'') is common on cotton in the Imperial Valley. At least by 1985 ''C. virescens'' had developed permethrin resistance. Nicholson & Miller 1985 find severe metabolic resistance to permethrin in Imperial Valley populations. See also and Imperial Valley.

(''Western flower thrips, Frankliniella occidentalis'') is a major pest of horticulture, horticulturals around the world. Here, it is especially known as a pest of peach and strawberry.

(See also , , .)

The (''Plutella xylostella'') is a common insect pest here. ' (''Bacillus thuringiensis kurstaki'') is a commonly used insectide for Diamondback Moth control in California. Shelton ''et al.'', 2000 finds a high degree of natural genetic variation in Btk resistance in the state's DM population.

The (''Eriophyes Eriophyes emarginatae, emarginatae'') produces leaf galls on several ''Prunus'' here. See also '.

Several ' are present. ' is found as an exotic pest here. Gloria-Soria ''et al.'', 2016 finds a significant amount of shared genetics between the population of Southern California, the southern part of the state and New Mexico, Arizona, and Mexico.

' is an invasive species, invasive crayfish across the Western US. It was first imported to a frog farm in San Diego County in 1932, and proved so successful as animal feed, feed and food that descendants were sold around the state. They escaped and now are a widespread nuisance.

''Lymantria dispar'' (spongy moth, gypsy moth) is an established species, established pest here. Epanchin-Niell ''et al.'', 2012 find that annual crop pest surveillance, surveillance costs can be easily reduced. Costs are reduced by 50% by targeting surveillance resources based on the difference in surveillance cost by location, and by the difference in establishment risk by location.

California is known to be free of ''Bactrocera tau'' (Walker). Very few jurisdictions – including this state, Florida, and New Zealand – are at such risk that a system of Steiner traps using methyl eugenol is employed to provide early warning of an invasion. Crops especially at risk include tomato, bell pepper, watermelon, other melons, cucumber and pumpkin. (See also , and .)

Weeds

Rejmanek & Pitcairn 2002 overview 53 weed eradication campaigns in the state, and find that any infestation smaller than was usually successfully eradicated, while anything which had already reached was essentially impossible to do.

(''Melilotus officinalis'' L. Lam.), (''Stellaria'' spp.), (''Poa annua'' Linnaeus), (''Capsella bursa-pastoris'' Linnaeus Medikus), (various ''Digitaria'' spp.), (''Euphorbia maculata'' Linnaeus Small), and (''Cyperus esculentus'') are common weeds here, including in strawberry and parsley. (See , and .)

(Horseweed, ''Conyza canadensis'', ''Erigeron canadensis'') is a common native weed here.

Glyphosate-resistant marestail first appeared in the state in the Central Valley, California, Central Valley in 2005 and this resistance spread unusually rapidly through the southern Valley thereafter. Okada ''et al.'', 2013 finds several independent evolutionary events, and that these unrelated herbicide resistance allele, resistance alleles may have been passed along so quickly because ''C. canadensis'' can reproduce by selfing. (''Conyza bonariensis'', ''Erigeron bonariensis'') is one of the major here. The Okada group also studies glyphosate-resistant hairy fleabane, glyphosate-resistant Hairy Fleabane. (See also .)

In the Central Valley, California, Central Valley the most common weeds are cool-season grass weeds (), thistles (Asteraceae), mustard plant, mustards (Brassicaceae), fiddleneck (Boraginaceae), warm-season grass weeds, warm-season Cyperaceae, amaranths (Amaranthaceae), morning glory (Convolvulaceae), and (''Tribulus terrestris'', Zygophyllaceae).

Achmon ''et al.'', 2018 dramatically lowered seed bank viability, biomass, and plant density, density of all these weeds, and improved tomato yield using biosolarization using tomato and grape crop waste.

(''Delairea odorata'') is an invasive weed originally from the Drakensberg Mountains in South Africa and Swaziland.

It was first observed here in 1892 and has since spread to every coast of the state, and into one coastal county of Oregon. Two organisms have been found in its native range which could be introduced here as controls, see ' and '.

(Sea beet, ''Beta vulgaris'' subsp. ''maritima'') and ' are introduced weeds here. The allozyme analysis of Bartsch & Ellstrand 1999 shows free gene flow between these two and cultivated beet. Wild beet is only significant in small grains in Imperial, where dicamba and 2,4-D are necessary. See also .

(''Amaranthus palmeri'') was first discovered in San Diego County by Sereno Watson in 1876. It has since spread elsewhere, developed the worst multiple herbicide resistance, multiresistance in the world, and become one of the most notorious crop weeds in the world.

In California it is found in all but the northernmost counties.

(radish (''Raphanus sativus'') × Jointed charlock (''Raphanus raphanistrum, R. raphanistrum'')) has replaced all of its ancestral populations in the state.

Diseases

''Xylella fastidiosa''

''Xylella fastidiosa, X.fastidiosa'' was first discovered here by (1856–1916) in 1892. It has ever since remained a constant pathogen of many crops here, including grape, almond, citrus, and oleander.

Pierce's Disease

= History of PD

=
When European grapes were introduced to this area Alta California in the 1700s they died off repeatedly, primarily due to PD but also insect pests but the Indigenous peoples of California, natives here had already been growing several native grape varieties, especially ''Vitis rotundifolia''. In the opinion of Scortichini the combination of these two demonstrates PD's presence in the state from antiquity, that native grapes had coevolution, coevolved with ''Xf'', and that this is the reason for the repeated failures of viticulture here until mixed European/American varieties were tried. This unidentified problem known only as the devastated of vineyard around Los Angeles in the 1880s and Pierce was sent by the USDA to investigate. In 1882 Pierce was able to identify that most of the failure was due to the disease, and less to the insects. For Pierce's contributions to its study it was renamed Pierce's Disease in 1939 by the California Department of Agriculture, state Department of Agriculture.

Whatever the time of arrival in California and in North America, the current PD-causing ''Xylella fastidiosa subsp. fastidiosa, Xff'' strains here show very recent evolutionary divergence, divergence in the mid-1900s. This is likely due to massive expansion or even introduction of the current ''Xff'' strains, replacing the pre-existing strains across the state as grape acreage expanded in the 1970s.

PD was assumed to be viral crop disease, viral until the 1970s. The first microbial isolate, isolation and identification of the bacterium is variously credited either to two groups simultaneously in 1973, Goheen ''et al.'', 1973 and Hopkins & Mollenhauer 1973, or only to Davis, Purcell, and Thomson 1978.

In 1997 the Blue-Green Sharpshooter (the primary PD vector) arrived here and the two have combined badly ever since. (See .) Only two years later, in 1999 together they inflicted over US$6 million in Southern California alone.

The Glassy-winged sharpshooter (GWSS) is an invasive agricultural pest which arrived in Southern California in the 1990s and has since invaded the central part of the state as well. (See .) It is an unusually effective vector of PD.

= PD today

=
The CDFA's coordinates response and research in the state.

Alston ''et al.'', 2013 estimates that PD cost the state $92m in 2013 and over Tumber ''et al.'', 2014 estimates $104m annually in 2014. Burbank estimates the cost to be $100m annually by 2022.

GWSS remains a common vector of PD and as such is a severe drag on the entire continent's wine grape and table grape pricing and supply. In the Napa Valley, Napa- and Sonoma Valley, Sonoma- Valleys and other such costal AVAs PD mostly occurs in hotspots adjascent to small water flows. These areas are defined by small streams and ornamental irrigation. These are favorable habitat for the BGSS. Lin ''et al.'', 2005 provides SSRs for differentiating between the state's various strains infecting grape and other crops and Lin ''et al.'', 2013 for grape-infecting strains here and in Texas.

The BGSS is known to thrive in higher temperatures and PD epidemics are more severe in hotter years, and there is evidence that global warming is increasing BGSS transmission of PD here. Larger data sets are needed for stronger confirmation.

There are two major divisions here, a lineage from Bakersfield and Santa Barbara, California, Santa Barbara and another from Temecula and northern California, the north. Within the northern areas there is lower gene flow, probably due to the Mayacamas Mountains.

Zhang ''et al.'', 2011 compares a PD strain to EB92-1 and finds that they are surprisingly similar. EB92-1 is a biological control, biocontrol strain discovered by Hopkins in 1992 and published as Hopkins 2005. It is originally from elderberry (''Sambucus'' spp.) and is highly persistent on grapevine but is asymptomatic. Zhang finds that the EB92-1 genome is a proper subset of the genome, lacking 11 missing genes, 10 of which are gene prediction, predicted to be pathogenicity factors.

Vanhove ''et al.'', 2020 elucidates the current genetic situation of PD strains here, including population structure (genetics), population structure and crop pathogen evolution, their evolution.

''Xf'' in stonefruit

''Xf'' is also significant in stonefruit here, causing Almond leaf scorch disease and other diseases.

(See also .) ''Xf'' isolates CFBP8071 and M23 (Xylella fastidiosa), M23 are common on almond here. Moralejo ''et al.'', 2019 shed some light on the European invasion of this pathogen. Their analysis shows these isolates have a 99.4% nucleotide identity with those on grape in the introduced range and more generally, these isolates, a European cherry infection, and PD isolates from both areas have a high degree of relatedness. Chen ''et al.'', 2005 provides PCR primers, Lin ''et al.'', 2015 Simple Sequence Repeats (SSRs), and Chen ''et al.'', 2010 the first genome sequence for common almond-infecting strains here. Lin ''et al.'', 2005 provides SSRs for differentiating strains from almond from various other strains. While almond and plum develop leaf scorch (see also ), Ledbetter & Rogers 2009 find that peach does not.

Besides Pierce's Disease, the glassy-winged sharpshooter also vectors ''Xf'' among stonefruit and so its arrival threatens the world's almond supply (see and ).

''Xf'' of citrus

Lin ''et al.'', 2005 provides Simple Sequence Repeats (SSRs) which distinguish California's (CVC) strains from almond, oleander, and PD strains.

''Xf'' of Oleander

Grebus ''et al.'', 1996 discovered the syndrome. Lin ''et al.'', 2005 provides Simple Sequence Repeats (SSRs) which distinguish California's OBLS strains from almond, citrus, and PD strains.

See also '.

Other ''Xf'' infections

''Xf'' has many other hosts. ''Chitalpa tashkentensis'' is a common landscaping plant here and elsewhere in the southwest that is also a host. Randall ''et al.'', 2009 propose for these strains but it remains unclear whether this is a distinct subspecies and whether it endures in the overall evolutionary course of ''Xf'' strains. Hernandez-Martinez ''et al.'', 2007 find causes disease of Oleander, ''Jacaranda'' spp., daylily, and magnolia.

Raju 1983 finds ''Xf'' without symptoms on wild ''Carneocephala fulgida'', ''Draeculacephala minerva'', the Blue-Green Sharpshooter (BGSS, ''Graphocephala atropunctata'', a vector), ''Helochara Helochara delta, delta'', ''Pagaronia tredecimpunctata'', and ''Philaenus spumarius''. Purcell & Saunders 1999 find infections in plants common to riparian zones here often are not motile in the host and spontaneously improve.

''Botrytis cinerea''

Various strain (biology), strains of (''Botrytis cinerea'') are a constant presence in the state's horticulture, including in strawberry and grape. (See and .)

Fungicides are used multiple times per seasons and as a result fungicide resistance, resistance is common. Cosseboom ''et al.'', 2019 finds the proportion of resistant isolates increased within a single season in conventional agriculture, conventional but not organic agriculture, organic.

Fungicide resistance allele, Alleles responsible include the ' alleles , , and ; ' alleles , , and ; the allele (which Hu ''et al.'' 2016 finds has no fitness penalty); the ' allele (found by Veloukas ''et al.'', 2014 to have no fitness penalty); the ' allele and the ''mrr1'' deletion event (also known as and found only in ); and ' alleles , , , and (the only one conferring resistance to isofetamid, cross-resistance, also confers resistance to penthiopyrad, fluopyram, and boscalid, and associated by Hu ''et al.'', 2016 with resistance to fluxapyroxad). The analysis of Cosseboom ''et al.'', 2019 explains 93.8% of resistance by already-known alleles discovered by Banno ''et al.'', 2008, Ma ''et al.'', 2007, Grabke ''et al.'', 2013, Kretschmer ''et al.'', 2009, Dowling ''et al.'', 2017, Fernández-Ortuño ''et al.'', 2012, Amiri ''et al.'', 2014, and Yin ''et al.'', 2011, so very little is due to experimental error, unknown physiological effects, or undiscovered alleles. (See , , and .)

Organic strawberry ranches experience very active genetic transfer with conventional strawberry and as a result they have high proportions of resistance. Cosseboom ''et al.'', 2019 finds that conventional fields undergo within-season resistance evolution (disambiguation), resistance evolution, while organic does not, demonstrating that they are indeed not using the fungicides they claim to not use, and that genetic transfer is not so rapid as to change the situation in a field that quickly.

Ma & Michailides 2005 developed a microsatellite primed PCR (MP-PCR) for genetic diversity in this fungus, especially for populations in this state.

was first discovered in 2018 in Santa Maria, California, Santa Maria and reported by Mansouripour & Holmes 2020.

''Bc'' was not previously known to produce a leaf spot phenotype in strawberry.

In table grape there is a limit of 0.5% table grapes can only be shipped if an allotment contains 0.5% or less of ''Bc''-infected berries. For one treatment option for grape, see .

Other diseases of grape

(caused by ''grapevine red blotch virus'', GLRaV-3) costs the state $90 million annually. Losses in Napa County cost over across the likely 25-year lifetime of a vineyard, far higher than the estimated for eastern Washington.

Al Rwahnih ''et al.'', 2013 discovered Grapevine Red Blotch-associated Virus (GRBaV) here, a DNA virus.

(''grapevine leafroll-associated virus 3'') is also economically significant.

The seriousness of (''Uncinula necator'') has been recognized since at least 1859 in the northern grape district. Newton B. Pierce was working in the area a few decades before his discovery of Pierce's Disease, and over the 1860s he watched ''U.necator'' spread to the south. Frederic Bioletti called it the only ''serious'' fungal disease the industry suffered from, and so it has remained ever since. Gubler ''et al.'', 1996 finds that reduced rates prescribed by IPM are responsible for some of ''U. necator''s triadimefon resistance, triadimefon-, myclobutanil resistance, myclobutanil-, and fenarimol resistance, fenarimol resistances.

''Fusarium'' spp.

''Fusarium'' is a genus of many ubiquitous species, species which are ubiquitous around the world, including here.

(''Fusarium oxysporum'' f. sp. ''fragariae'') had only been seen once before, in Queensland, in one sample of Winks & Williams in 1966, until appearing again here in 2006 and identified by Koike ''et al.'' 2009. it has spread throughout the state.

Henry ''et al.'', 2017 apply a Japanese polymerase chain reaction, PCR-based test of nuclear ribosomal intergenic spacer and elongation factor 1-α. They find such high similarity between the intended Japanese target populations and California populations that there are almost no false negatives. There are no false positives on other ''Fo'' types (i.e. those not pathogenic on strawberry). Although this suggests both populations have a common origin, that remains to be proven. The matching IGS and EF-1α sequences divide into three somatic compatibility groups. The vast majority fell into what they term SCG1, with a few of SCG2 and SCG3. SCG2 is always a false negative with this test which may indicate the entire group lacks the sequence in question. Although this proves to be a good test, a universally valid test may require finding a sequence specifically pertinent to virulence on the host and not other, incidental sequences.

For genetic resistance see .

In early 2012 a previously unknown plant disease (an unidentified ''Fusarium'') and vector (a ''Euwallacea'', preliminarily termed the , PSHB) were detected in Los Angeles County, Los Angeles and Orange County, California, Orange Counties.
This is especially a disease affecting avocado growers, but also other crops in this state and in its other invasive range, avocado cultivation in Israel, in Israel. In fact although PSHB was noticed on a black locust here in 2003, the associated ''Fusarium'' was only detected in 2012 on home avocado trees in LA County. (See above.) As all ''Euwallacea'' in both their native and invasive ranges, this insect prefers to infest hosts in this area in locations which are stressful due to their unnaturalness, such as urban ornamental plantings and orchards.

(Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. lactucum, ''Fusarium oxysporum'' f. sp. ''lactucum'') is common in the state.

''Alternaria'' spp.

Various ''Alternaria'' spp. are significant fungal crop disease, fungal diseases here and often receive strobilurin, iprodione, azoxystrobin, and tebuconazole treatments. The Ma & Michaelides group has done extensive work on fungicide resistance, including in these pathogens. They have characterized fungicide resistance allele, resistance alleles (and in some cases produced molecular diagnostics methologies) for strobilurin resistance, strobilurin-resistant-, iprodione resistance, iprodione-resistant-, and azoxystrobin resistance, azoxystrobin-resistant- isolates.

' has one of the widest host ranges of any fungal crop pathogen and so fungicides are commonly used. Almost all fruiting production of vulnerable crops must be fungicide-treated. Avenot, along with the Michailides group has found extensive boscalid resistance in a swathe from the center down into the central southern part of the state, especially Kern County, Kern, Tulare County, Tulare, Fresno County, Fresno, and Madera County, Madera. Although it is also commonly fungicide application, applied in Kings County, California, Kings, no resistance is known there. (See .)

is a common pomegranate disease worldwide. Out of the group of causative species, here Luo ''et al.'', 2017 find it is caused by ''A. alternata'' and '. Michailides ''et al.'', 2008 finds the can suffer at a rate of 10% or more here. (See also .)

is common here. It is caused by various species of this genus and relatives including: ''Ulocladium atrum'', ''A. alternata'', rarely other ''Alternaria'' spp., ''Dendryphiella vinosa'', and ''Curvularia'' spp. ''Epicoccum purpurascens'' causes Alternaria of breba only. (The first, "breba" crop is not eaten but must be removed because it harbors inoculum (disambiguation), inoculum of all of these microbes for the second, real crop.)

See also .

''Candidatus'' Phytoplasma

The (Candidatus Phytoplasma pyri, ''Candidatus'' Phytoplasma pyri) was first found here in the Sacramento Valley in 1948. The same pathogen may be the cause of .

Other diseases

causes , a common disease here.

The (''Aphelenchoides fragariae'') and (''Meloidogyne hapla'') are the two most common here, although RKN is rarely seen by CalPoly Strawberry Center's diagnostic lab. Even rarer are the (''Pratylenchus penetrans''), (''Ditylenchus dipsaci''), (''Xiphinema americanum''), (''Longidorus elongatus''), (''Aphelenchoides ritzemabosi'' and ''Aphelenchoides besseyi, A. besseyi''), and other (''Meloidogyne incognita'' and ''Meloidogyne javanica, M. javanica'') nematodes.

occurs on , , and here. is a common cause. Natamycin is often used in strawberry. (See and .) Adaskaveg & Hartin 1997 identify the ''C. acutatum'' strain (biology), strains most frequently responsible in peach and almond. (See and .)

' and ' are significant diseases of stonefruits here and benzimidazole is often used. The Ma & Michaelides group has done extensive work on fungicide resistance in these microorganisms. (See and .)

' is a significant fungal crop disease, fungal diseases here which often receives strobilurin, iprodione, azoxystrobin, and tebuconazole treatments. The Ma & Michaelides group has done extensive work on fungicide resistance, including in this pathogen. They have characterized fungicide resistance allele, resistance alleles of tebuconazole resistance, tebuconazole-resistant- isolates.

Figs commonly suffer from here. Smut is caused by various ''Aspergillus'' spp. and relatives, including: ''Aspergillus niger'', ''Aspergillus japonicus, A. japonicus'', ''Aspergillus carbonarius, A. carbonarius'', ''Aspergillus flavus, A. flavus'' and ''Aspergillus parasiticus, A. parasiticus'', ''Eurotium'' spp., ''Aspergillus tamarii, A. tamarii'', ''Aspergillus terreus, A. terreus'', ''Aspergillus wentii, A. wentii'', ''Aspergillus alliaceus, A. alliaceus'', ''Aspergillus melleus, A. melleus'', ''Aspergillus ochraceus, A. ochraceus'', ''Emericella'' spp., ''Aspergillus carneus, A. carneus'', ''Aspergillus fumigatus, A. fumigatus'', ''Aspergillus sclerotiorum, A. sclerotiorum'', and ''Aspergillus sydowii, A. sydowii''.

Olives here suffer from a wide range of olive disease, fungal diseases of the Botryosphaeriaceae family, as elsewhere in the world. Úrbez-Torres ''et al.'', 2013 finds and are the most virulent of them on Manzanillo (olive), Manzanillo and Sevillano (olive), Sevillano. Moral ''et al.'', 2010 finds ''N. mediterraneum'' commonly causes a branch blight on several cultivars and causes a branch canker. More specific controls than currently available are needed for ''N. mediterraneum'' in highly susceptible cultivars, and early harvest may be the only successful treatment for ''D. seriata''. See .

is present in the state. ' and its vectors ''C. quinquefasciatus'', ''C. stigmatosoma'', and ''C. tarsalis'' are most commonly responsible. The Herman group made the first reports of infection and vector competence in various host (epidemiology), hosts, in Herman 1951, Herman ''et al.'', 1954, and Reeves ''et al.'', 1954-II.

Zoologix is based in the state and is a major provider of testing services here and for the entire country, including for avian malaria.

See for hosts and ' for vectors.

(Puccinia striiformis f. sp. tritici, ''Puccinia striiformis'' f. sp. ''tritici'', ''Pst'') is believed to have been a continuous presence in the state since at least the 1770s because newspapers reported it at the time on wheat and wild grass (disambiguation), wild grasses, and because stripe is more common today than leaf or stem. Barley, wheat, and various grasses are hosts here. (See and .) Maccaferri ''et al.'' 2015 surveys the world's wheat and finds the Davis, California, Davis ''Pst'' populations are unusually heterogenous. That makes the Davis environment a useful experimental location for differentiating wheat crop genetic resistance (disambiguation), genetic resistance.

''Stromatinia cepivora'' (garlic white rot) was identified in the San Francisco area in the 1930s and Gilroy, California, Gilroy in the 1940s. It continues to be a problem for garlic growers in the state.

(''Mycosphaerella rubi'', anamorph ''Septoria rubi'') is common here. It is common on caneberry excluding raspberry, so erect and trailing blackberry, dewberry, olallieberry, and boysenberry. (See also .) Treatment is simple, almost entirely relying on increased air circulation. No fungicides are registered but any fungicides for and will work. Copper fungicide, Copper and lime sulfur work to some degree.

This should be distinguished from (''Sphaerulina rubi'', anamorph ''Cylindrosporium rubi''). Although Leaf Spot of Raspberry is found here it is not ''common'' in California. (See also .)

s (biovars of ''Verticillium dahliae'') are found here as in any other ecozone. This includes . Unlike every other known Vert Wilt of any other crop, this syndrome sometimes lacks any or any noticeable vascular discoloration of the crown (botany), crown. In strawberry, methyl bromide has historically been vital to prevention, and with phase out, this disease is of increasing concern. (See .) In all cases ''some'' fumigation is necessary, and if fumigation is not possible then solarization and/or crop rotation, rotation are the only remaining options. (See .) Although drip fumigation (fumigation inline in the drip tape) is possible it does not produce the same results, especially failing to reach the shoulders of the beds. Nurseries universally use MB or MB + chloropicrin, while growers may use 1,3-D + chloropicrin, chloropicrin alone, metam sodium, or metam potassium. Note that MB+chloropicrin also provides an uncharacterized growth promoter effect in this crop. (See , , , .)

(SCV, ''Strawberry crinkle cytorhabdovirus'') is common here. Much of the fundamental research into SCV has been performed by a lab at UC Berkeley, including research on mechanical transmission.

Frequent use has produced streptomycin resistance in (''Erwinia amylovora'') here, first found in the state's pear microbial isolate, isolates by Miller & Schroth 1972. This disease is a problem of pomes, including pear. See also and .

For one disease caused by see .

of peach is primarily caused by ''Armillaria mellea'' and ''Armillaria solidipes, A. solidipes'' here. ''Armillaria gallica, A. gallica'' and ''Armillaria mexicana, A. mexicana'' are not thought to be common here, but are common in Mexico. (See also .)

' afflicts tomato here. See also .

is a phytoplasma of apricot here. Uyemoto ''et al.'', 1991 found it on apricot in California. See .

(''Bremia lactucae'') is common on lettuce here. The population in the country, and especially in this state, is unusual however: It is highly clonal. As a result Brown ''et al.'', 2004 finds all microbial isolate, isolates have the same metalaxyl resistance. See also .

Kim ''et al.'', 2015 finds ' isolates from citrus here have developed fludioxonil resistance, see .

(''Tilletia indica'', syn. ''Neovossia indica'') has spread from Asia to this continent, and since 1996 has been found in this country. It is present in areas of this state, and Arizona and Texas.

(''Spiroplasma kunkelii'') affects maize, corn (maize, ''Zea mays'') here.

(''Phytophthora ramorum'') is a widespread disease of oaks here and in Oregon, and is also found in Europe. It was first discovered in the 1990s on the Central Coast and was quickly Phytophthora ramorum in Oregon, found in Oregon as well. ''P. ramorum'' is of economic concern due to its infestation of '' Rubus'' and '' Vaccinium'' spp. All microbial isolate, isolates here and throughout North America have been of the Phytophthora ramorum A2, A2 mating type and genetic analysis suggests that although it was discovered here, the pathogen originated elsewhere. Although ''P.r.'' has also been found in England and Poland, Europe was not the source of the introduction here and analysis shows that it too was introduced from an unknown third region. The multi-locus microsatellite typing (MLMT) analysis of Mascheretti ''et al.'' 2008 connects ''P. ramorum'' populations in tree nursery, nurseries and the wild. Mascheretti also finds three genotypes that are common among microbial isolate, isolates here and are therefore probably the founding genotypes. See also .

Treatments

usage was in 2004.

The first ''known'' anywhere in the world was reported by Melander 1914, in the San Jose Scale to lime sulfur. The second was also found here, by Quayle 1916, in the (''Aonidiella aurantii'') to cyanide.

(See also .)

was heavily used as a seed treatment here, applying almost in 2000 but voluntarily reducing that to only by 2004, before the US EPA, federal EPA banned it for agricultural use 2006.

are heavily used especially in fruit production. Adaskaveg ''et al.'', 2005 finds no compromise in effectiveness when substituting lower-toxicity fungicides for older, higher-toxicity ingredients.

They find a boscalid + pyraclostrobin mixture, fenhexamid, fludioxonil, and pyrimethanil to be good substitutes for the more toxic dicloran, iprodione, and tebuconazole. (See , , , , .) Older fungicides also have generally experienced much slower fungicide resistance evolution, resistance evolution than newer ingredients. Although it would be desirable to only fungicide application, apply when necessary, determining the actual presence of fungi is difficult and estimation and expertise are usually substituted for certainty. Mahafee ''et al.'' and Coastal Viticulture Consultants find trapping and polymerase chain reaction, PCR are cost effective for determining microbial inoculum, inoculum presence in grape in Napa Valley, Napa due to the high density and productivity of the industry there, while Oregon's Willamette Valley's grape industry is too sparse to make it economical.

was formerly an indispensable part of strawberry cultivation here, such that that Ansel Adams and Nancy Newhall selected "strawberry fumigation" as one of the great achievements of the University of California system to photograph for their centennial book. However, increasing legal restrictions have made alternatives financially more attractive, otherwise more attractive, or even just necessary. (Note also the unexplained growth promoter, growth promotion effect of MB+chloropicrin in strawberry.) MB was more effective in the finely-textured soils found in some parts of the state (see ).

is one such other option. Stapleton ''et al.'', 2005 kill almost 100% of yellow sweetclover (''Melilotus officinalis'' L. Lam.), chickweed (''Stellaria'' spp.), annual bluegrass (''Poa annua'' Linnaeus), shepherd's purse (''Capsella bursa-pastoris'' Linnaeus Medikus), crabgrass (various ''Digitaria'' spp.), and spotted spurge (''Euphorbia maculata'' Linnaeus Small) with this method in strawberry and parsley. Solarization completely fails against yellow nutsedge infesting the same crops however. (See also and .)

The s (including ) in the harvest residues of broccoli make them useful in the biofumigation of nematodes, although cultivars of Brassicaceae with higher concentrations would be desirable. Combining with solarization (biosolarization) does not improve the performance of this treatment however.

(See also .)

With methyl bromide being phased out, UC-IPM recommends fumigating strawberry with or a combination of chloropicrin and followed by or 57 days later, for nematodes (see ). (This treatment will also control weeds, other soilborne pathogens, and soil-dwelling insect pests.) Unfortunately 1,3-D is proving less effective than MB in the finely-textured soils in some parts of the state (see ).

UC IPM provides recommendations for integrated pest management, including specifically for strawberry.

For Strawberry Crown Rot, genetic crop disease resistance, resistance would be most helpful. Shaw ''et al.'', 2008 provides some genetic marker, markers to screen germplasm for such resistance. (See also .)

is used as a prophylactic dip treatment to prevent ''Colletotrichum acutatum'' anthracnose. (See also '.)

is an SDHI (succinate dehydrogenase inhibitor fungicide, Fungicide Resistance Action Committee, FRAC group 7) commonly used for fruit molds. It is considered to be at high risk for fungicide resistance evolution, resistance here due to its frequent use often multiple fungicide application, applications per season.

, , , , boscalid, , , , , and (in descending order) suffer extensive fungicide resistance, resistance due to repeated fungicide application, sprays many times per season in strawberry here. The team performing this research, Cosseboom ''et al.'', 2019, also surprisingly found that this is such a problem that within-season fungicide resistance evolution, evolution is significant, especially in Northern California, the north and especially in fenhexamid, pyraclostrobin, and thiophanate-methyl. In fact, if there was any resistance at all it was most commonly multiple fungicide resistance, triple resistance to these three. They suggest thiophanate-methyl should not be used at all. Adaskaveg & Gubler 2006 and Billard ''et al.'', 2012 find fenhexamid resistance carries a fitness cost however, so rotating it out for a time may restore its efficacy. Johnson ''et al.'', 1994 and Raposo ''et al.'', 1996 find suggestive evidence for the same in iprodione.

On the other hand Saito ''et al.'', 2016 finds no fludioxonil resistance at all in Gray Mold isolates from blueberry here, contrasting with Washington which does have ''some'' resistance.

See and .

is by far the most commonly used fungicide in strawberry,

see also .

The (''DcACV'') is a insect virus, virus of the Asian citrus psyllid.

It was first identified by Nouri ''et al.'', 2016 in isolates from this state. It is hoped that this can be weaponized as a bioinsecticide of ACP, a virus to be intentionally spread outside of the state to help control this insect. (See also and above.)

was formerly extensively used in citrus here. Honeybees developed DDT resistance in the 1950s, possibly for that reason. (See also .)

is commonly used against ''Monilinia fructicola'' and ''M. laxa''. The Ma & Michaelides group has done extensive work on benzimidazole resistance, benzimidazole-resistant- biotypes of both species. (See ' and '.)

' and ' are the two most common parasitoids of ''N. ribisnigri'' aphids on the Central Coast. These serve as natural biocontrols for organic agriculture, organic lettuce growers here. See also and '.

is registered as a for edible fruits such as cherry, apple, blueberry, and grape. (See also .)

The moth predates on the invasive weed Cape-ivy.

(See .) In food preference tests, Mehelis ''et al.'' 2015 find that the moth is so selective about preferring Cape-ivy that it would serve well as a safe biocontrol here and in Oregon. is a fungus which has been found on the same weed in its native range.

It can be used as a biocontrol as well.

is usable in organic agriculture, organic. Ozone is often used here in organic grape and sometimes by packers handling conventional agriculture, conventional for post-harvest Gray Mold. See and .

Archbold ''et al.'', 1997 test a large number of and find them effective against Gray Mold isolates from grape here. Those volatiles are , , , , , , , , , and .

See also and .

has been commonly used for some bacterial diseases here since the 1950s. Overreliance in treatment of Fire Blight led to such severe by 1970 that was used instead, although it is less effective. Moller ''et al.'' 1981 found resistance had declined to ~5% at the original location and streptomycin usage resumed, but in 2006 pear again suffered from resistant epidemics in Sacramento County and most usage again ceased. Förster ''et al.'', 2015 finds pesticide efficacy, efficacy has again returned everywhere but Sutter County, California, Sutter and San Joaquin County, San Joaquin. All other strains were in the range of moderate to low resistance. The SY/SJ strains carry a mutation in codon 43 of the gene ', a chromosome, chromosomal gene. ''rpsL'' codes for the protein S12 (30S protein), S12 which is part of the 30S ribosomal subunit. This mutation reduces binding affinity for the antibacterial to the ribosome, permitting unimpaired protein synthesis. This mutation is much more effective than any on plasmids or in transposons.

See , , and .

s are used both to protect fields and food storage, storage facilities. (See also .) Serieys ''et al.'' 2014 finds that this has had a detrimental environmental side effect: Bobcats (''Lynx rufus'') suffered a severe population decline in rodenticide application areas at times when they also suffered an epizootic of notoedric mange (''Notoedres cati'').

(SIT) has been used to great success against both the Mexfly and the Medfly. See also and .

The Morandin group has done extensive research on the use of hedgerows on farms in California. For a positive effect see . In the California Central Valley, Central Valley they find hedgerows increase beneficial insect numbers.

Treatments to prevent desiccation are important because this is a major reason for postharvest losses postharvest loss (fruit), in fruit, postharvest loss (vegetable), in vegetables and postharvest loss (mushroom), in mushroom in California's industry. Hyperspectral imaging is useful to noninvasive monitoring of postharvest condition.

Insurance

As with the entire country there is USDA subsidized crop insurance for the state. The Risk Management Agency provides various insurance schemes and deadlines by counties of California, County and by crop.

Research, testing, and propagation material

(FPS) is a part of UC Davis College of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences, UCD's College of Agriculture which serves the horticultural industries. FPS performs several services including testing for crop disease, diseases (especially viral crop disease, viral diseases), identifying cultivar, varieties of unknown plant samples, and supplying cuttings (vegetative propagation material) from in situ individuals they maintain. They use a library of published Simple Sequence Repeats (SSRs) known to be relevant to the state's strawberry industry to identify those varieties specifically. is an even more active, private molecular lab for the strawberry industry. CS&PL tests for clients here and around the world.

California's experiences with the Vine mealybug, Glassy-winged sharp-shooter, and Pierce's disease have informed the process of creating epidemiological model, geographic models for the spread of pests and diseases and their management in viticulture around the world. See and .

Professor Juan Pablo Giraldo (University of California, Riverside, UCR) has been making great progress since 2013 in nanomaterials applied to crops.

Labor

The program studies the state's farmworkers and provides information about them.

The union organizing campaign of César Chávez and its impact on the industry has become a well known chapter in American history. His movement was also joined by artists such as famed theater and film director Luis Valdéz. Ecofeminists have supported the United Farm Workers' strikes including Chávez's Grape boycott, especially for their positions on pesticides.

Despite the Immigration Reform and Control Act of 1986, Taylor & Thilmany 1992 found that the state's farmers did not reduce their hiring of illegal immigrants in California, illegal immigrants as farmworkers.

In deed illegal immigration inflows increased in the 1990s.

In addition to advising producers, the Statewide Integrated Pest Management program (UC IPM) began training farmworkers in 1988.

By the late 1990s the large immigrant population had expanded the workforce, reduced wages and working time per worker. The reanalysis of Khan ''et al.'', 2004 finds that increased production of labor demanding crops increases agricultural labor demand, but does not necessarily have to because the same workers could have been hired to perform more hours. For many decades the Immigration and Naturalization Service (INS) and U.S. Customs and Border Protection, Customs and Border Protection (CBP) left farmworkers alone. INS and then CBP chose not to do any significant enforcement in agriculture, United States hospitality industry, hospitality, or United States construction industry, construction. Especially in the Northern Sacramento Valley and Southern San Joaquin Valley, farmworkers had risen to a high ratio, proportion of the population by 2013.

Despite the passage of the (ALRA) in 1975, by 2012 unions were less popular with farmworkers than they had been before it was passed.

Even when immigration was unrestricted, strawberry growers felt in 2017 that labor supply was still too tight. Farmers here were solid supporters of candidate and then President Trump, but were quickly surprised by the rhetoric of the administration due to the labor situation in the industry. As late as 2017 the illegal workforce was still forecasting, projected to grow. A Pew Research Center analysis by Passel & Cohn expected continued lax enforcement to produce a continued population boom, including among California's agricultural workers. During and after the escalated deportation and removal from the United States, deportation raids the lack of normal labor opened opportunities for others. Many high school students with farmworker family members quit school to join them in the fields.

Some farmworkers here are not employed here all year but instead travel to other agricultural employment while California is in the off season.

Although the entire tomato harvest was performed by laborers until recently, machines for harvest have been developed. The harvest of processing tomatoes is now entirely done by machines. The fresh tomato market still must be supplied by laborers however. See . Just before the 2018 deportations began, in 2017 strawberry pickers earned ~$150/day or ~$18.75/hour.

The right personal protective equipment (PPE) is required for fumigant applicators and those working nearby. Practices and training and provided by the California Department of Pesticide Regulation, state Department of Pesticide Regulation.

, 9% of all unauthorized immigrants in California are employed in this industry.

Gillman ''et al.'', 2019 finds that on-farm interviews with workers can reduce food loss and waste. They find that interviews provide actionable information to change practices, reducing waste.

Enforcement of state laws and regulations regarding farm labor and pesticides is the responsibility of the s.

Harrison & Getz 2015 study organic agriculture, organic fruit and vegetable workers here and find that working conditions generally improve with increasing farm size. Stockton ''et al.'', 2017's meta analysis shows workers were earning two-thirds of the average List of people from California, Californian due to a combination of low wages and underemployment.

Hundreds of thousands of members of native Mexican ethnics are estimated to live in the state as farmworkers.

The state California Department of Industrial Relations, Department of Industrial Relations (DIR) regulates and provides information for workers and employers. UCANR and UCCE also provide information for employers' business planning.

During 2021 field workers have been severely dissatisfied with working conditions. They complain of both suffering from the ongoing pandemic and from the financial impact of missing work.

The is operated by the California Strawberry Growers' Fund. it has awarded over $2 million for the schooling of strawberry pickers' children. The have a similar program.

Billikopf has repeatedly (Billikopf 1999, Billikopf 2001) found that improved working conditions improve worker productivity of strawberry pickers.

Demand for workers in grape cultivation is greatest from late June to early November for the San Joaquin Valley, and mid-May to early July for the Coachella Valley.

References

External links

California Agricultural Statistics Review 2017-2018
from the California Department of Food and Agriculture
*
*

{{Agriculture in the United States

Agriculture in California,