During and following the
Korean War
, date = {{Ubl, 25 June 1950 – 27 July 1953 (''de facto'')({{Age in years, months, weeks and days, month1=6, day1=25, year1=1950, month2=7, day2=27, year2=1953), 25 June 1950 – present (''de jure'')({{Age in years, months, weeks a ...
, the
United States
The United States of America (U.S.A. or USA), commonly known as the United States (U.S. or US) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It consists of 50 states, a federal district, five major unincorporated territorie ...
military used regulated prostitution services in
South Korea
South Korea, officially the Republic of Korea (ROK), is a country in East Asia, constituting the southern part of the Korea, Korean Peninsula and sharing a Korean Demilitarized Zone, land border with North Korea. Its western border is formed ...
n military camptowns. Despite prostitution being illegal since 1948, women in South Korea were the fundamental source of sexual services for the
US military
The United States Armed Forces are the Military, military forces of the United States. The armed forces consists of six Military branch, service branches: the United States Army, Army, United States Marine Corps, Marine Corps, United States N ...
and a component of Korean-American relations. The women in South Korea who served as prostitutes are known as ''kijichon'' (기지촌) women, also called as "Korean Military Comfort Women", and were visited by the US military, Korean soldiers, and Korean civilians. The prostitutes were from Korea,
Philippines
The Philippines (; fil, Pilipinas, links=no), officially the Republic of the Philippines ( fil, Republika ng Pilipinas, links=no),
* bik, Republika kan Filipinas
* ceb, Republika sa Pilipinas
* cbk, República de Filipinas
* hil, Republ ...
,
China
China, officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), is a country in East Asia. It is the world's most populous country, with a population exceeding 1.4 billion, slightly ahead of India. China spans the equivalent of five time zones and ...
,
Vietnam
Vietnam or Viet Nam ( vi, Việt Nam, ), officially the Socialist Republic of Vietnam,., group="n" is a country in Southeast Asia, at the eastern edge of mainland Southeast Asia, with an area of and population of 96 million, making i ...
,
Thailand
Thailand ( ), historically known as Siam () and officially the Kingdom of Thailand, is a country in Southeast Asia, located at the centre of the Indochinese Peninsula, spanning , with a population of almost 70 million. The country is bo ...
,
Sri Lanka
Sri Lanka (, ; si, ශ්රී ලංකා, Śrī Laṅkā, translit-std=ISO (); ta, இலங்கை, Ilaṅkai, translit-std=ISO ()), formerly known as Ceylon and officially the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka, is an ...
,
Nepal
Nepal (; ne, नेपाल ), formerly the Federal Democratic Republic of Nepal ( ne,
सङ्घीय लोकतान्त्रिक गणतन्त्र नेपाल ), is a landlocked country in South Asia. It is mai ...
,
Indonesia
Indonesia, officially the Republic of Indonesia, is a country in Southeast Asia and Oceania between the Indian and Pacific oceans. It consists of over 17,000 islands, including Sumatra, Java, Sulawesi, and parts of Borneo and New Guine ...
, and the
Commonwealth of Independent States
The Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) is a regional intergovernmental organization in Eurasia. It was formed following the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991. It covers an area of and has an estimated population of 239,796,010. ...
(specifically
Russia
Russia (, , ), or the Russian Federation, is a List of transcontinental countries, transcontinental country spanning Eastern Europe and North Asia, Northern Asia. It is the List of countries and dependencies by area, largest country in the ...
,
Kazakhstan
Kazakhstan, officially the Republic of Kazakhstan, is a transcontinental country located mainly in Central Asia and partly in Eastern Europe. It borders Russia to the north and west, China to the east, Kyrgyzstan to the southeast, Uzbeki ...
and
Ukraine
Ukraine ( uk, Україна, Ukraïna, ) is a country in Eastern Europe. It is the second-largest European country after Russia, which it borders to the east and northeast. Ukraine covers approximately . Prior to the ongoing Russian inv ...
).
Etymology
Prostitutes servicing members of the
U.S. military in South Korea have been known locally under a variety of terms. They have been referred to as "bar girls", "special entertainers", "Korean Military Comfort Women", "comfort women", "hostesses", and "business women".
Yankee princess (; 洋公主; yanggongju; foreigner's whore) also translated as Western princess, were other common names and literal translations for the prostitutes in the ''Gijichon'', U.S. military Camp Towns
in South Korea.
The term "Western princess" has been commonly used in the press, such as ''
The Dong-a Ilbo
The ''Dong-A Ilbo'' (, literally ''East Asia Daily'') is a newspaper of record in Korea since 1920 with a daily circulation of more than 1.2 million and opinion leaders as its main readers. ''The Dong-A Ilbo'' is the parent company of Dong-A M ...
'' for decades.
It is also used as a derogatory term when referring to
interracial
Interracial topics include:
* Interracial marriage, marriage between two people of different races
** Interracial marriage in the United States
*** 2009 Louisiana interracial marriage incident
* Interracial adoption, placing a child of one raci ...
couples, particular those between a white male and Korean female.
Yankee whore ( ''Yanggalbo'') and Western whore are also common names. The women are also referred to as
U.N.
The United Nations (UN) is an intergovernmental organization whose stated purposes are to maintain international peace and security, develop friendly relations among nations, achieve international cooperation, and be a centre for harmonizi ...
madams (,
''
U.N.
The United Nations (UN) is an intergovernmental organization whose stated purposes are to maintain international peace and security, develop friendly relations among nations, achieve international cooperation, and be a centre for harmonizi ...
madam'').
Juicy girls is a common name for
Filipina
Filipinos ( tl, Mga Pilipino) are the people who are citizens of or native to the Philippines. The majority of Filipinos today come from various Austronesian ethnolinguistic groups, all typically speaking either Filipino, English and/or other ...
prostitutes.
Until the early 1990s, the term ''Wianbu'' (, 慰安妇 "Comfort Women") was often used by South Korean media and officials to refer to prostitutes for the U.S. military,
but ''
comfort women
Comfort women or comfort girls were women and girls forced into sexual slavery by the Imperial Japanese Army in occupied countries and territories before and during World War II. The term "comfort women" is a translation of the Japanese '' ia ...
'' has also been a euphemism for the sex slaves for the
Imperial Japanese Army
The was the official ground-based armed force of the Empire of Japan from 1868 to 1945. It was controlled by the Imperial Japanese Army General Staff Office and the Ministry of the Army, both of which were nominally subordinate to the Emperor o ...
, and to avoid confusion, the term ''yanggongju'' (Yankee princess) replaced ''wianbu'' to refer to sexual laborers for the U.S. military.
The early 1990s also saw the two
women's rights
Women's rights are the rights and entitlements claimed for women and girls worldwide. They formed the basis for the women's rights movement in the 19th century and the feminist movements during the 20th and 21st centuries. In some countries, ...
movements diverge: on one side the one representing the Cheongsindae (comfort women for the Japanese military), and on the other side the movement representing the Gijichon (Camptown for the US military). Despite many women on both sides being victims of forced labor, those who supported Cheongsidae believed the kijich'on women were willing participants in the system of prostitution and sexually promiscuous.
, some South Korean media were using the term migun wianbu (, "US comfort women"),
translating to "American comfort women".
History
Beginning in 1945, an institutionalized system of prostitution was adopted and permitted by the U.S. military and the Republic of Korea. Despite the
United States Forces Korea
United States Forces Korea (USFK) is a Unified Combatant Command#Subordinate Unified Command, sub-unified command of United States Indo-Pacific Command, U.S. Indo-Pacific Command (USINDOPACOM). USFK is the joint headquarters for U.S. combat-re ...
's policy stating, "Hiring prostitutes is incompatible with our military core values",
there is a discrepancy between "practice" and "policy". In Korean society, prostitution is viewed as a "necessary evil". The U.S. military have explained it as military culture that allows for American GIs to blow off steam and prevent
homosexual
Homosexuality is romantic attraction, sexual attraction, or sexual behavior between members of the same sex or gender. As a sexual orientation, homosexuality is "an enduring pattern of emotional, romantic, and/or sexual attractions" to peop ...
tendencies.
Prostitutes for U.S. soldiers were esteemed to be at the bottom of the social hierarchy by South Koreans.
They were also lowest status within the hierarchy of prostitution.
U.S. Military Government Rule in South Korea 1945-1948
In September 1945,
United States Armed Forces
The United States Armed Forces are the military forces of the United States. The armed forces consists of six service branches: the Army, Marine Corps, Navy, Air Force, Space Force, and Coast Guard. The president of the United States is the ...
, led by General John R. Hodge, occupied South Korea after Korea's liberation from Japan. This also included Imperial Japanese comfort stations. These events continued the government-sanctioned prostitution that was established in Korea under Japan's rule. The formation of licensed prostitution by Japan established registration protocols and mandatory
STD examinations for Korean sex workers. Once the U.S. military occupied Korea, these examinations were conducted by the Bureau of Public Health and Welfare. In order to protect U.S. soldiers from contracting diseases from prostitutes, the service bars and clubs were relocated near and within military bases. By confining the prostitutes to within a small area, the U.S. military had the power to regulate and monitor the women's activities and health. As the U.S. military government tolerated and regulated prostitution, women's organizations argued for the abolishment of prostitution. In response, the United States passed The Abolishment of Public Prostitution Law in 1947. This abolished licensed prostitution; however, the law increased the proliferation of private prostitution.
Post Korean War
The aftermath of the Korean War resulted in extreme poverty and chaos. This produced a large influx in prostitutes as women resorted to sex work in order to support themselves and their family members. Prostitution became a regular and enduring feature of military camptowns.
Estimates for the number of Korean prostitutes below are variously based on figures from articles of independent writers, venereal disease examinations, and government statistics.
In 1953, the total number of prostitutes throughout the population in South Korean was 350,000 according to one government report. However, according to statistics from the Korean government, the total number of prostitutes in South Korea was 17,349 in 1953. According to the research by professor Lee Young-hoon, an economic professor at Seoul National University, into the number of examinations for venereal disease, estimated the total number of Korean prostitutes was between 26,000 to 39,000 for American soldiers from 1955 to 1966. Surveys carried out during the 1950s and 1960s suggest that 60% of these prostitutes worked near U.S. military camps, but although these prostitutes worked near U.S. military camps, many of them served only Korean men. A 1984 report suggested that the number of prostitutes around US bases had dropped to less than a third of the total number of prostitutes in the country.
The average age of Korean prostitute for American soldier is 27 years old while for Korean soldiers is 21 years old. The average Korean prostitutes work for several years, others work 5 to 10 years. The average Korean prostitute length of service is 2.5 years for Korean soldiers while for American soldiers the average length is 3 years. The average number of instances of sexual intercourse per day was 1.7 times with the US military, which was significantly less than those for Koreans (5.51 times). However, the average monthly income per Korean prostitute was 11,423 won with U.S military, more than three times that with Koreans (3,455 won). At the time, the average monthly wage for manufacturing workers was 3,800 won for males, and about 2,500 won for females.
An estimate from a writer claimed the number of prostitutes was probably proportional to the number of U.S soldiers. The number of U.S. soldiers stationed in Korea stood at 326,863 in 1953; 225,590 in 1954; 75,328 in 1955; 55,864 in 1960; 45,000 in the 1970s and 42,000 in the 1980s. Many of the Korean prostitutes that worked in 1953 would leave within a year, while others continued to work for several more years. As the number of U.S soldiers decreased after 1953 so did the number of Korean prostitutes.
In 1954, Korean government(보건사회복지부) figures give a total of 10,000–30,000 prostitutes servicing the U.N/U.S. military in the South Korea, about 20,000 prostitutes in 1966, reducing to 13,000-14,000 in 1969. reducing to 9,935 in 1977.
The
Second Republic viewed prostitution as something of a necessity.
Starting in the 1960s, an official organized system was established to provide the U.S. military men with entertainment and leisure that fulfilled their sexual fantasies, such as
peep show
A peep show or peepshow is a presentation of a live sex show or pornographic film which is viewed through a viewing slot.
Several historical media provided voyeuristic entertainment through hidden erotic imagery. Before the development of the ci ...
s and
strip club
A strip club is a venue where strippers provide adult entertainment, predominantly in the form of striptease or other Erotic dancing, erotic or exotic dances. Strip clubs typically adopt a nightclub or Bar (establishment), bar style, and can also ...
s. Lawmakers of the
National Assembly
In politics, a national assembly is either a unicameral legislature, the lower house of a bicameral legislature, or both houses of a bicameral legislature together. In the English language it generally means "an assembly composed of the repre ...
urged the South Korean government to train a supply of prostitutes for allied soldiers to prevent them from spending their dollars in Japan.
Lee Seung-u
Yi Seungu (, born 21 February 1959) is a South Korean writer.
Life
Yi Seungu was born in Jangheung County, South Jeolla Province, South Korea in 1959.The Globalizing World and the Human Community, The Seoul International Forum of Literature 20 ...
, the deputy
home minister
The Minister of Home Affairs (or simply, the Home Minister, short-form HM) is the head of the Ministry of Home Affairs of the Government of India. One of the senior-most officers in the Union Cabinet, the chief responsibility of the Home Minist ...
, gave a response to the National Assembly that the government had made some improvements in the "Supply of Prostitutes" for American soldiers.
These camptowns existed as a site for the American
GIs
A geographic information system (GIS) is a type of database containing Geographic data and information, geographic data (that is, descriptions of phenomena for which location is relevant), combined with Geographic information system software, sof ...
R&R.
Park Chung-hee
Park Chung-hee (, ; 14 November 1917 – 26 October 1979) was a South Korean politician and army general who served as the dictator of South Korea from 1961 until his assassination in 1979; ruling as an unelected military strongman from 1961 ...
, who ruled South Korea during the 1960s and 1970s, and the father of the former president
Park Geun-hye
Park Geun-hye (; ; often in English ; born 2 February 1952) is a South Korean politician who served as the 11th president of South Korea from 2013 to 2017, until she was impeached and convicted on related corruption charges.
Park was the fi ...
, encouraged the
sex industry
The sex industry (also called the sex trade) consists of businesses that either directly or indirectly provide Sex worker, sex-related products and services or adult entertainment. The industry includes activities involving direct provision of s ...
in order to generate revenue, particularly from the U.S. military.
Park seized power in the
May 16 coup
The May 16 military coup d'état () was a military coup d'état in South Korea in 1961, organized and carried out by Park Chung-hee and his allies who formed the Military Revolutionary Committee, nominally led by Army Chief of Staff Chang Do- ...
, and immediately enforced two core laws. The first was the prostitution prevention law, which excluded "camp towns" from the governmental crackdown on prostitution; the second was the tourism promotion law, which designated camp towns as special tourism districts.
During the 1960s, prostitutions and other related businesses generated nearly 25% of the South Korean
GNP
The gross national income (GNI), previously known as gross national product (GNP), is the total domestic and foreign output claimed by residents of a country, consisting of gross domestic product (GDP), plus factor incomes earned by foreign ...
.
In 1962, 20,000 comfort women were registered.
[ The prostitutes attended classes sponsored by their government in English and etiquette to help them sell more effectively.] They were praised as "dollar-earning patriots" or "true patriots" by the South Korean government. In the 1970s one junior high school teacher told his students that "The prostitutes who sell their bodies to the U.S. military are true patriots. Their dollars earned greatly contributes to our national economy. Don't talk behind their back that they are western princesses or U.N. madams."
In 1971, the number of American soldiers was reduced by 18,000 due to the Nixon Doctrine
The Nixon Doctrine (also known as the Guam Doctrine) was put forth during a press conference in Guam on July 25, 1969 by President of the United States Richard Nixon and later formalized in his speech on Vietnamization of the Vietnam War on Novembe ...
. Because of this, South Koreans were more afraid of the North Korean threat and its economic impact. Even so, camp town prostitution had already become an important component of South Korean livelihood. The advocacy group My Sister's Place
My Sister's Place ( RR: Durebang; MR: Turebang; Hangul: 두레방) is an advocacy and counseling group founded in March 1986 in Uijeongbu, South Korea. The group is a non-profit government organization that supports women involved and affected b ...
wrote in 1991 that the American soldiers contributed one billion dollars to the South Korean economy. This was 1% of the South Korean GNP.
Racial segregation and discrimination against black soldiers
Camp town clubs were racially segregated
Racial segregation is the systematic separation of people into race (human classification), racial or other Ethnicity, ethnic groups in daily life. Racial segregation can amount to the international crime of apartheid and a crimes against hum ...
between blacks and whites, and women were classified according to the soldiers' race. The residents near Camp Humphreys
Camp Humphreys ( ko, 캠프 험프리스), also known as United States Army Garrison-Humphreys (USAG-H), is a United States Army garrison located near Anjeong-ri and Pyeongtaek metropolitan areas in South Korea. Camp Humphreys is home to Des ...
discriminated between black and white soldiers. Black soldiers vented their anger against camp town residents. On 1971 July 9, fifty black soldiers provoked a riot against racist discrimination and destroyed some clubs near Camp Humphreys. In turn, residents hunted down black soldiers with sickles. American military police and South Korean police quelled the rioters. Many Korean prostitutes demonstrated prejudiced behavior toward black soldiers by refusing to offer sexual services. Women who fraternized or sold sexual services to blacks were labeled as "black " by Americans and Koreans and faced severe social condemnation and stigmatization by others.
Camptown Clean-Up Campaign
The significant increase in camptown problems and tensions among community relations resulted in a number of policies that sought to improve U.S. military camp areas. On August 1971, the Secretary of Home Affairs Ministry, in cooperation with health authorities, gave orders to each police station to take precautions against sexually transmitted diseases
Sexually transmitted infections (STIs), also referred to as sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) and the older term venereal diseases, are infections that are spread by sexual activity, especially vaginal intercourse, anal sex, and oral sex ...
and to instruct prostitutes about them. On December 22, 1971, Park Chung-hee
Park Chung-hee (, ; 14 November 1917 – 26 October 1979) was a South Korean politician and army general who served as the dictator of South Korea from 1961 until his assassination in 1979; ruling as an unelected military strongman from 1961 ...
, the President of South Korea
The president of the Republic of Korea (), also known as the president of South Korea (often abbreviated to POTROK or POSK; ), is the head of state and head of government of the Republic of Korea. The president leads the State Council, and is ...
, enforced the Base Community Clean-Up Campaign. This also became known as the BCCUC. U.S. military personnel advised the South Korean government that the camp towns were breeding grounds for sexually transmitted infections and places of racist discrimination. The venereal disease
Sexually transmitted infections (STIs), also referred to as sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) and the older term venereal diseases, are infections that are spread by sexual activity, especially vaginal intercourse, anal sex, and oral se ...
ratio per 1,000 American soldiers rapidly increased. Through the collaboration of the United States and the Republic of Korea, these policies were implemented to prevent and correct unfavorable conditions and base-community relations. The United States' military and the BCCUC worked separately on solving issues that pertained to the camptown improvements.
The BCCUC's goal was to create a favorable image of U.S. servicemen in South Korea among Korean nationals. However; in order to do so, the BCCUC needed to fix a "source of embarrassment", the high rates of venereal disease among the American GIs and Korean sex workers. Registering prostitutes, enforcing STD examinations, and improving clinics were ways the BCCUC attempted to control prostitution and reduce the rates of sexually transmitted diseases. The U.S. military's goal was to improve the living conditions for U.S. servicemen and boost troop morale and discipline. By establishing the Subcommittee on Civil Military Relations, the U.S. military began to attend to these goals by focusing on eradicating sexually transmitted diseases and reducing racial discrimination. Other tasks included widening roads, improving sanitation, and making R&R establishments more accessible and inviting were some measures taken to improve the overall camptown environment.
It is argued that this campaign forced prostitutes to carry the weight of American-Korean relations. The US Military Police Corps and South Korean officials regularly raided prostitutes who were thought to be spreading disease. They would detain those thought to be ill, locking them up under guard in so-called "monkey houses" that had barred windows. The women were forced to take medications that were reported to make them vomit. Women who were certified to be without disease wore tags. The US military issued and required the prostitutes who worked at clubs to carry venereal disease cards and also published a venereal disease guide to inform American soldiers patronizing bars.
South Korean Women's Movement
The women's movement against military prostitution began in the mid-1980s when Christian women and student movement activists came together to address the military prostitution issue. Ignited by the longstanding effort of Christian women organizations in the 1920s, it became a goal to eradicate prostitution. However, in the 1980s, the movement became focused on the relationship between women, democratization
Democratization, or democratisation, is the transition to a more democratic political regime, including substantive political changes moving in a democratic direction. It may be a hybrid regime in transition from an authoritarian regime to a ful ...
, and US military authoritarian rule. Two groups joined together for this movement: Christian women organizations and student activists. My Sister's Place, also known as ''Durebang'', was the first women's organization founded in 1986 to bring awareness to the kijich'on movement. Not only did they advocate for the abolishment of prostitution and against the exploitation of Korean women, My Sister's Place was also center that provided educational and rehabilitation services for kijich'on women. The effort put into activism against kijich'on prostitution brought nationwide attention and became the subject for many feminist scholars.
Post-military government rule
During the early 1990s, the prostitutes became a symbol of South Korean anti-American nationalism. In 1992, one estimate claimed there were about 18,000 registered and 9,000 unregistered South Korean women around U.S. military bases. Korean government figures for 1992 were about 1,129 prostitutes working around U.S. military bases, and around 926 in 1993 and around 8,000 (mostly foreign women) in 1995.
In 1992, Yun Geum-i, a camptown sex worker in Dongducheon
Dongducheon () is a city in Gyeonggi Province, South Korea.
The city, to the north of Seoul, is strategically important for the defense of the Korean capital. The main camps of the United States Second Infantry Division are in the city, and the d ...
, was brutally killed by U.S. servicemen. Yun was found dead with a bottle stuffed into her vagina and an umbrella into her anus. In August 1993, the U.S. government compensated the victim's family with about US$72,000. However, the murder of a prostitute did not itself spark a national debate about the prerogatives of the U.S. forces; on the other hand, the rape of a twelve-year-old Okinawan school girl in 1995 by three American servicemen, one being a U.S. Navy Seaman, the others U.S. Marines
The United States Marine Corps (USMC), also referred to as the United States Marines, is the Marines, maritime land force military branch, service branch of the United States Armed Forces responsible for conducting expeditionary warfare, exped ...
elicited much public outrage and brought wider attention to military-related violence against women.
Since 2004, the majority of prostitutes have been Philippine or Russian
Russian(s) refers to anything related to Russia, including:
*Russians (, ''russkiye''), an ethnic group of the East Slavic peoples, primarily living in Russia and neighboring countries
*Rossiyane (), Russian language term for all citizens and peo ...
women. South Korean sex workers have become less numerous as Filipino and Russian women were a cheaper labor alternative. Since the mid-1990s, foreigners make up 80–85% of the women working at clubs near military bases. With the collapse of the Soviet Union
The Soviet Union,. officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. (USSR),. was a transcontinental country that spanned much of Eurasia from 1922 to 1991. A flagship communist state, it was nominally a federal union of fifteen national ...
, thousands of Russian migrated to Korea to work as entertainers while others forced into prostitution for both American soldiers and Korean civilian men.
Despite Filipino and Russian sex workers being the majority, Korean prostitutes are still present in large numbers. According to the Ministry of Gender Equality and Family
The Ministry of Gender Equality and Family (), or formerly the Ministry of Gender Equality (여성부, 女性部, ), is a cabinet-level division of the government of South Korea. It was created on February 28, 1998 as the ''Presidential Commissio ...
, South Korean prostitutes numbered about 330,000 in 2002. Most of these are not working near US bases, but operating in the local economy. In 2013, the Ministry estimated that about 500,000 women worked in the national sex industry. The Korean Feminist Association estimates the actual number may exceed one million. According to the estimates up to one-fifth of women between the ages of 15 and 29 have worked in the sex industry.
The South Korean government also admits sex trade
The sex industry (also called the sex trade) consists of businesses that either directly or indirectly provide sex-related products and services or adult entertainment. The industry includes activities involving direct provision of sex-related ...
accounts for as much as 4 percent of the annual gross domestic product
Gross domestic product (GDP) is a money, monetary Measurement in economics, measure of the market value of all the final goods and services produced and sold (not resold) in a specific time period by countries. Due to its complex and subjec ...
. In August 1999, a Korean club owner in Dongducheon
Dongducheon () is a city in Gyeonggi Province, South Korea.
The city, to the north of Seoul, is strategically important for the defense of the Korean capital. The main camps of the United States Second Infantry Division are in the city, and the d ...
was accused of trafficking in women by bringing more than 1000 Philippine and Russian women into South Korea for U.S. military bases, but a South Korean judge overturned the warrant. In 2000, five foreign women locked in a brothel died in a fire in Gunsan
Gunsan (), also romanized as Kunsan, is a city in North Jeolla Province, South Korea. It is on the south bank of the Geum River just upstream from its exit into the Yellow Sea. It has emerged as a high-tech manufacturing industrial city and an int ...
.
In 2002, Fox Television
The Fox Broadcasting Company, commonly known simply as Fox and stylized in all caps as FOX, is an American commercial broadcast television network owned by Fox Corporation and headquartered in New York City, with master control operations and ...
reported casing brothels where trafficked women were allegedly forced to prostitute themselves to American soldiers. U.S. soldiers testified that the club or bar owners buy the women at auctions, therefore the women must earn large sums of money to recover their passport
A passport is an official travel document issued by a government that contains a person's identity. A person with a passport can travel to and from foreign countries more easily and access consular assistance. A passport certifies the personal ...
s and freedom. In May 2002, U.S. lawmakers asked U.S. Secretary of Defense
The United States secretary of defense (SecDef) is the head of the United States Department of Defense, the executive department of the U.S. Armed Forces, and is a high ranking member of the federal cabinet. DoDD 5100.1: Enclosure 2: a The se ...
Donald Rumsfeld
Donald Henry Rumsfeld (July 9, 1932 – June 29, 2021) was an American politician, government official and businessman who served as Secretary of Defense from 1975 to 1977 under president Gerald Ford, and again from 2001 to 2006 under Presi ...
for an investigation that "If U.S. soldiers are patrolling or frequenting these establishments, the military is in effect helping to line the pockets of human traffickers".
In June 2002, the U.S. Department of Defense pledged to investigate the trafficking allegations. In 2003, the Seoul
Seoul (; ; ), officially known as the Seoul Special City, is the capital and largest metropolis of South Korea.Before 1972, Seoul was the ''de jure'' capital of the Democratic People's Republic of Korea (North Korea) as stated iArticle 103 ...
District Court ruled that three night club owners near Camp Casey must compensate all Filipina
Filipinos ( tl, Mga Pilipino) are the people who are citizens of or native to the Philippines. The majority of Filipinos today come from various Austronesian ethnolinguistic groups, all typically speaking either Filipino, English and/or other ...
women who had been forced into prostitution. The club owners had taken their passports and had kept the women locked up. One Philippine woman who was in captivity kept a diary about her confinement, beating, abortion
Abortion is the termination of a pregnancy by removal or expulsion of an embryo or fetus. An abortion that occurs without intervention is known as a miscarriage or "spontaneous abortion"; these occur in approximately 30% to 40% of pregn ...
and starvation
Starvation is a severe deficiency in caloric energy intake, below the level needed to maintain an organism's life. It is the most extreme form of malnutrition. In humans, prolonged starvation can cause permanent organ damage and eventually, dea ...
. Before the trial began, the International Organization for Migration
The International Organization for Migration (IOM) is a United Nations agency that provides services and advice concerning migration to governments and migrants, including internally displaced persons, refugees, and migrant workers.
The IOM was ...
studied the trafficking of foreign women and reported the result to its headquarters in Geneva
Geneva ( ; french: Genève ) frp, Genèva ; german: link=no, Genf ; it, Ginevra ; rm, Genevra is the List of cities in Switzerland, second-most populous city in Switzerland (after Zürich) and the most populous city of Romandy, the French-speaki ...
. The Philippine Embassy
The Republic of the Philippines has a network of diplomatic missions in major cities around the world, under the purview of the Department of Foreign Affairs (DFA), to forward Philippine interests in the areas that they serve, as well as to se ...
also joined the proceedings, making it the first embassy to take steps on behalf of its nationals.
In 2002, the South Korean government completely discontinued issuing visas to Russia
Russia (, , ), or the Russian Federation, is a List of transcontinental countries, transcontinental country spanning Eastern Europe and North Asia, Northern Asia. It is the List of countries and dependencies by area, largest country in the ...
n women, so prostitution businesses moved to bring in more Filipinas instead. Human traffickers
Human trafficking is the trade of humans for the purpose of forced labour, sexual slavery, or commercial sexual exploitation for the trafficker or others. This may encompass providing a spouse in the context of forced marriage, or the extra ...
also brought in many Russian women through marriages and sham marriage
A sham marriage or fake marriage is a marriage of convenience entered into without intending to create a real marital relationship. This is usually for the purpose of gaining an advantage from the marriage.
Definitions of sham marriage vary by ...
s with Korean men so they stay legally in South Korea. In 2005, Filipina and Russian women became common in Korean red light districts and even accounted for 90 percent of the prostitutes in U.S. military camp towns. In 2005, Hwang Sook-hyang, a club owner in Dongducheon, was sentenced to a 10-month suspended sentence
A suspended sentence is a sentence on conviction for a criminal offence, the serving of which the court orders to be deferred in order to allow the defendant to perform a period of probation. If the defendant does not break the law during that ...
and 160 hours of community service
Community service is unpaid work performed by a person or group of people for the benefit and betterment of their community without any form of compensation. Community service can be distinct from volunteering, since it is not always performed ...
on charges of illegal brothel-keeping. The following civil trial sentenced him to compensate US$5,000 to a Philippine woman who was forced to have sex with U.S. soldiers between February 8 and March 3, 2004. The Philippine woman was recruited by a South Korean company in the Philippines as a nightclub singer
A nightclub act is a production, usually of nightclub music or comedy, designed for performance at a nightclub, a type of drinking establishment, by a nightclub performer such as a nightclub singer or nightclub dancer, whose performance may ...
in 2004, then she and several Philippine women were locked inside Hwang's club and forced to have sex with U.S. soldiers. The former "juicy bar" employees testified that soldiers usually paid US$150 to bring women from the bar to a hotel room for sex; the women received US$40. Most juicy bars have a quota system linked to drink purchases. Women who do not sell enough juice are forced into prostitution by their managers.
In 2004, the U.S. Defense Department proposed anti-prostitution. A U.S. serviceman at Camp Foster (located on Okinawa) told a '' Stars and Stripes'' reporter that although prostitution was illegal in the United States, South Korea, Thailand
Thailand ( ), historically known as Siam () and officially the Kingdom of Thailand, is a country in Southeast Asia, located at the centre of the Indochinese Peninsula, spanning , with a population of almost 70 million. The country is bo ...
and Australia
Australia, officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a Sovereign state, sovereign country comprising the mainland of the Australia (continent), Australian continent, the island of Tasmania, and numerous List of islands of Australia, sma ...
, it was "pretty open". By 2009, the Philippine Embassy in South Korea had established a "Watch List" of bars where Philippine women were forced into prostitution and were considering sharing it with the U.S. military in hopes that U.S. commanders would put such establishments near bases off-limits to their troops.
As of 2009, some 3,000 to 4,000 women working as prostitutes came annually from Southeast Asia
Southeast Asia, also spelled South East Asia and South-East Asia, and also known as Southeastern Asia, South-eastern Asia or SEA, is the geographical United Nations geoscheme for Asia#South-eastern Asia, south-eastern region of Asia, consistin ...
, accounting for 90% of the prostitutes. Despite prostitution being illegal in South Korea, camp towns were still practically exempted from crackdowns.
The United States Department of State
The United States Department of State (DOS), or State Department, is an executive department of the U.S. federal government responsible for the country's foreign policy and relations. Equivalent to the ministry of foreign affairs of other n ...
, has reported the predicament of women who worked at bars near U.S. military bases asa human trafficking concerns in South Korea. The Government of the Philippines
The Government of the Philippines ( fil, Pamahalaan ng Pilipinas) has three interdependent branches: the legislative, executive, and judicial branches. The Philippines is governed as a unitary state under a presidential representative and d ...
stopped approving contracts that promoters used to bring Philippine women to South Korea to work near U.S. military bases.
In 2011, the Eighth Army founded the Prevention of Sexual Assault Task Force; the task force assessed and reported the climate in South Korea regarding sexual assault
Sexual assault is an act in which one intentionally sexually touches another person without that person's consent, or coerces or physically forces a person to engage in a sexual act against their will. It is a form of sexual violence, which ...
among U.S. soldiers.
In 2012, a United States Forces Korea public service announcement clarified, "Right now, young women are being lured to Korea thinking they will become singers and dancers," and "Instead, they will be sexually exploited in order to support their families." The United States Forces Korea
United States Forces Korea (USFK) is a Unified Combatant Command#Subordinate Unified Command, sub-unified command of United States Indo-Pacific Command, U.S. Indo-Pacific Command (USINDOPACOM). USFK is the joint headquarters for U.S. combat-re ...
posted a video on YouTube
YouTube is a global online video platform, online video sharing and social media, social media platform headquartered in San Bruno, California. It was launched on February 14, 2005, by Steve Chen, Chad Hurley, and Jawed Karim. It is owned by ...
, clarifying that "buying overpriced drinks in a juicy bar supports the human trafficking industry, a form of modern-day slavery
Slavery and enslavement are both the state and the condition of being a slave—someone forbidden to quit one's service for an enslaver, and who is treated by the enslaver as property. Slavery typically involves slaves being made to perf ...
." However, some U.S. commanders continue to allow American soldiers to patronize the bars as long as they have not been caught directly engaging in prostitution or human trafficking. Most recently, in June 2013, General Jan-Marc Jouas placed all juicy bars outside Osan Air Base
Hanja:)
, partof =
, location =
, nearest_town = Pyeongtaek, Gyeonggi Province
, country = South Korea
, image = Osan Air Base 51 FW F-16 A-10 Flyby.jpg
, alt = US Air Force F-16C Fighting Falcon and A-1 ...
off-limits for Seventh Air Force
The Seventh Air Force (Air Forces Korea) (7 AF) is a Numbered Air Force of the United States Pacific Air Forces (PACAF). It is headquartered at Osan Air Base, South Korea.
The command's mission is to plan and direct air component operations in ...
personnel. This change in policy resulted in three weeks of large scale protests in the local area, however, General Jouas credits this change in policy as resulting in most Juicy bars in the area closing down.
On June 25, 2014 122 surviving Korean comfort women for the U.S. forces filed a lawsuit against their government to reclaim human dignity and demand ₩
The won sign , is a currency symbol. It represents the South Korean won, the North Korean won and, unofficially, the old Korean won.
Appearance
Its appearance is "W" (the first letter of "Won") with a horizontal strike going through the cent ...
10 million compensation per plaintiff. According to the claim, they were supervised by the U.S. forces and the South Korean government and South Korean authorities colluded with pimps in blocking them from leaving. In 2017, a three judge panel of the Central District Court in Seoul, ordered the government to pay 57 plaintiffs the equivalent of $4,240 each in compensation for physical and psychological damage.
Since 2014, USFK has banned all American military service members from visiting any establishments that allow patrons to buy drinks (or juice) for the hostesses for the purposes of their companionship. Hostess bars, juicy bars and anywhere that the company of women can be purchased are off-limits to American military. Since US military service members were a large source of the hostess bars clientele, this effectively closed all hostessing themed establishments nearby all US military bases in Korea.
Policies
Foreign policies between the United States and Republic of Korea determined the U.S.'s occupation and influence in South Korea. Through collaboration between Korean leaders and the U.S. military, an institutionalized system transpired which tolerated and regulated prostitution. The arrival of American GIs resulted in greater demand for Korean sex workers and an increase in clientele for R&R (Rest and Relaxation) establishments.
Abolishment of Public Prostitution Law
The Abolishment of Public Prostitution Law (Public Act No. 7) was passed on November 11, 1947 and took effect on February 14, 1948. The U.S policy was installed in order to alter the system of licensed prostitution which was established in Korea under Japan's rule. Despite the abolishment of licensed prostitution, it only led to the “privatization” of prostitution and the widespread dispersement of prostitutes throughout the area. This made its difficult for the government to systematically regulate prostitutes and their activities; specifically, mandatory STD exams for prostitutes could no longer be enforced. This resulted in a large spike of STD's among prostitutes and the U.S. military Rehabilitation and welfare assistance for prostitutes were supposed to be a part of the new law; however, policymakers denied national funds towards these programs.
Through the Abolishment of Public Prostitution Law, the U.S. military government replaced licensed establishments of prostitution to camptowns near military bases. This provided a communal space for prostitutes and U.S. military men.
Mutual Defense Treaty
The United States' involvement in aiding South Korea during the Korean War (1950-1953) resulted in the Mutual Defense Treaty in 1953 that declared the Republic of Korea and the United States as military alliances. Through this treaty, the Republic of Korea formally granted military facilities, areas, and status for U.S. troops in Korea for an indefinite period. The presence of U.S. military troops, under the Mutual Defense Treaty, were the product of high kijich'on prostitution rates.
Nixon Doctrine
In 1969, the Nixon Doctrine declared the need to reduce the United States' military involvement from Asia. This resulted in 20,000 U.S. servicemen being removed from South Korea and the formal withdrawal of American GIs from the DMZ. Due to the economic dependence on the U.S. military's presence for jobs and income, prostitution decreased but competition significantly heightened among clubs, other businesses, and sex workers. Newspapers reported the significant economic losses and the widespread dislocation that occurred after the removal of U.S. troops. It was publicized that some establishments went from making $200 to $300 per night to a profit of $4 to $5. Many who lived near U.S. bases needed to relocate to more concentrated areas while others found work in different industries. The removal of U.S. troops under the Nixon Doctrine caused an increase in camptown problems and great resentment towards the United States.
Kijich'on (Military Camptown)
The large army camptowns are mainly located near the demilitarized zone (DMZ) which is between North and South Korea. The most popular camp towns are P’yŏngt’aek, P’aju, Tongduch’ŏn, and Ŭijŏngbu which have developed near main U.S. army bases. Kijich’on towns are neighbored to U.S. military camp bases and contain a combination of American and Korean residents. These towns consist of businesses and entertainment that serve the interests of U.S. military men. In brothels, bars, and clubs, these R&R establishments provide kijich'on women for American GIs. Camptowns also contain other businesses such as barbershops, pawnshops, convenience stores, and so forth. The camp towns rely solely on the traffic of customers that is brought by the kijich'on nightlife.
Kyŏnggi Province
From the 1950s to the 1970s, the Kyŏnggi Province housed the majority of U.S. army troops and Korean sex workers. In 1977, 18,551 of the estimated 36,924 Korean sex workers were located in the Kyŏnggi Province. In 2001, 21 out 34 remaining U.S. military bases are located in the Kyŏnggi Province. Within the Kyŏnggi Province, Tongduch’ŏn, P’yŏngt’aek, P’aju, and Ŭijŏngbu are the most concentrated cities for prostitution.
Women and offspring
The children born to American soldiers and South Korean prostitutes were often abandoned when soldiers returned to the U.S. By the 1970s, tens of thousands of children had been born to South Korean women and American soldiers. In South Korea, these children are often the target of racist vitriol and abuse, being called mostly "western princess bastards" (''Yanggongju-ssaekki'') children of white soldiers, and a minority born to black soldiers were "darkies", or "niggers" (''Kkamdungi''). It was difficult for South Korean prostitutes around the U.S. military bases to escape from being stigmatized by their society, so their only hope was to move to the United States
The United States of America (U.S.A. or USA), commonly known as the United States (U.S. or US) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It consists of 50 states, a federal district, five major unincorporated territorie ...
and marry an American soldier. Trafficked Filipinas also had the same expectation.
Some American soldiers paid off the women's debt to their owners to free them in order to marry them. However, most U.S. soldiers were unaware of the trafficking. Some soldiers helped Philippine women escape from clubs. In 2009, juicy bar owners near Camp Casey who had political muscle, demanded that U.S. military officials do something to prevent G.I.s from wooing away their bar girls with promises of marriage. In June 2010, U.S. forces started a program to search for soldiers who had left and abandoned a wife or children. ''Haunting the Korean Diaspora: Shame, Secrecy, and the Forgotten War'', a research on prostitutes by Grace M. Cho
Grace may refer to:
Places United States
* Grace, Idaho, a city
* Grace (CTA station), Chicago Transit Authority's Howard Line, Illinois
* Little Goose Creek (Kentucky), location of Grace post office
* Grace, Carroll County, Missouri, an unin ...
, daughter of a G.I.
G.I. are initials used to describe the soldiers of the United States Army and airmen of the United States Air Force and general items of their equipment. The term G.I. has been used as an initialism of "Government Issue", "General Issue", or " ...
and a South Korean woman, was awarded the best 2010 book on Asia and Asian America by the American Sociological Association
The American Sociological Association (ASA) is a non-profit organization dedicated to advancing the discipline and profession of sociology. Founded in December 1905 as the American Sociological Society at Johns Hopkins University by a group of fif ...
.
A former South Korean prostitute said to ''The New York Times
''The New York Times'' (''the Times'', ''NYT'', or the Gray Lady) is a daily newspaper based in New York City with a worldwide readership reported in 2020 to comprise a declining 840,000 paid print subscribers, and a growing 6 million paid ...
'' that they have been the biggest sacrifice of the . The women also see themselves as war victims. They are seeking compensation and apologies. Because of this tainted history, the primary stereotype that most South Koreans held of South Korean women who had copulated with white men or "crackers" ("Hindungi") was mainly negative. Besides, the first transnational marriage
A transnational marriage or international marriage is a marriage between two people from different countries.
History
Transnational marriage has been attested since ancient times, often in instances where royal families sought to form alliances w ...
s were mostly between U.S. soldiers and Korean women who worked in U.S. military bases or who were camp prostitutes. The U.S government has no official statistic on the number of Korean women married to U.S soldiers. Others come from unconfirmed statistics from writers. The author Grace M. Cho came up with her own estimate, claiming that by 2010, 100,000 Korean women had married U.S. soldiers and moved to the United States. South Korean women married to foreigners are often viewed as prostitutes. Marriages between South Koreans and foreigners often carry a serious stigma in South Korean society. A woman who is married to a Spaniard
Spaniards, or Spanish people, are a Romance ethnic group native to Spain. Within Spain, there are a number of national and regional ethnic identities that reflect the country's complex history, including a number of different languages, both ind ...
, said that almost 100% of middle-aged South Korean men look her up and down when she walks hand in hand with her husband.
Internationally married women in the United States often faced prejudice once they arrived in America. Many people assumed the women were camp-town workers or sex worker
A sex worker is a person who provides sex work, either on a regular or occasional basis. The term is used in reference to those who work in all areas of the sex industry.Oxford English Dictionary, "sex worker"
According to one view, sex work is d ...
s.
In popular culture
Films
* ''The Women Outside: Korean Women and the U.S. Military'' (1995) is a documentary produced by Hye Jung Park and J.T. Takagi.
* ''Comfort Woman - Wianbu (2008)'' is a short film directed and produced by James Bang. It nominated for the 35th Student Academy Awards.
* ''The Evil Night'' (1952) and ''A Flower in Hell
''A Flower in Hell'' () is a 1958 South Korean film directed by Shin Sang-ok. For her performance in the film, Shin's wife, Choi Eun-hee was given the Best Actress award at the 2nd Buil Film Awards. During the Korean War, director Shin Sang-ok had ...
'' (1958) by Shin Sang-ok
Shin Sang-ok ( ko, 신상옥; born Shin Tae-seo; October 11, 1926 – April 11, 2006) was a South Korean filmmaker with more than 100 producer and 70 director credits to his name. His best-known films were made in the 1950s and 60s, many of them ...
depict South Korean prostitutes within the films.
* ''Silver Stallion'' (1991) by Chang Kil-su shows a prostitute symbolizing the raped nation of Korea.
* ''Spring in My Hometown
''Spring in My Hometown'' () is a 1998 South Korean film.
Synopsis
A story about two village boys, Sungmin and Changhee, in the summer of 1952, during the Korean War.
Cast
* Ahn Sung-ki ... Sungmin's father
* Bae Yoo-jung ... Changhee's mother
* ...
'' (1998) by Lee Kwang-mo
Lee Kwang-mo (born 28 January 1961) is a South Korean executive producer and film director. He is best known for his first feature ''Spring in My Hometown'' (1998) which won numerous awards.
Early life
On January 28, 1961, Lee was born in Sou ...
depicts a prostitute wait for her American lover who never returns.
* '' Address Unknown'' (2001) by Kim Ki-duk
Kim Ki-duk ( ; 20 December 196011 December 2020) was a South Korean film director and screenwriter, noted for his idiosyncratic art-house cinematic works. His films have received many distinctions in the festival circuit, rendering him one of ...
depicts the lover of a prostitute who never returns to South Korea.
* ''Bloodless'' (2017) by Gina Kim is based on the true story of a South Korean prostitute, Yun Keum Yi, brutally murdered by a US soldier in 1992.
* ''Camp Arirang'' (1995)
* '' Juicy Girl'' (2021) short film directed by MJ Kim depicts a story of Soyoung, a sex trafficing victim who is murdered by a US Army medic in Korea.
Theater
* ''Seven Neighborhoods Like Warm Sisters'' depicts prostitutes living near Camp Humphreys
Camp Humphreys ( ko, 캠프 험프리스), also known as United States Army Garrison-Humphreys (USAG-H), is a United States Army garrison located near Anjeong-ri and Pyeongtaek metropolitan areas in South Korea. Camp Humphreys is home to Des ...
.
* Though it is not set in South Korea, the theme of ''Miss Saigon
''Miss Saigon'' is a stage musical by Claude-Michel Schönberg and Alain Boublil, with lyrics by Boublil and Richard Maltby Jr. It is based on Giacomo Puccini's 1904 opera ''Madame Butterfly'', and similarly tells the tragic tale of a doomed rom ...
'' (1989) is based upon the romantic encounter between an American serviceman and a Vietnamese prostitute during the Vietnam War
The Vietnam War (also known by #Names, other names) was a conflict in Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia from 1 November 1955 to the fall of Saigon on 30 April 1975. It was the second of the Indochina Wars and was officially fought between North Vie ...
.
Novels
* ''Memories of My Ghost Brother'' by Heinz Insu Fenkl Heinz Insu Fenkl (born 1960) is an author, editor, translator, and folklorist. His autobiographical novel ''Memories of My Ghost Brother'' is widely taught at colleges and universities. He is also an expert on Asian American and Korean literature, i ...
1996)
* ''Shorty Kim'' (1957).
* '' A Stray Bullet'' by Yu Hyun-mok
Yu Hyun-mok (July 2, 1925 – June 28, 2009) was a South Korean film director. Born in Sariwon, Hwanghae, Korea (North Korea today), he made his film debut in 1956 with ''Gyocharo'' (''Crossroads''). According to the website koreanfilm.org, ...
depicts one woman who becomes a prostitute to rescue her family.
* ''What Crashes, Has Wings'' (1988).
See also
* Sexual slavery
Sexual slavery and sexual exploitation is an attachment of any ownership rights, right over one or more people with the intent of Coercion, coercing or otherwise forcing them to engage in Human sexual activity, sexual activities. This include ...
* Bordel militaire de campagne
Bordels Mobiles de Campagne or Bordel Militaire de Campagne (both abbreviated to BMC) were mobile brothels used during World War I, World War II and the First Indochina War to supply prostitution services to French soldiers fighting in areas whe ...
* Comfort women
Comfort women or comfort girls were women and girls forced into sexual slavery by the Imperial Japanese Army in occupied countries and territories before and during World War II. The term "comfort women" is a translation of the Japanese '' ia ...
* Wartime sexual violence
Wartime sexual violence is rape or other forms of sexual violence committed by combatants during armed conflict, war, or military occupation often as spoils of war, but sometimes, particularly in ethnic conflict, the phenomenon has broader ...
* Lai Đại Hàn
The term ''Lai Dai Han'' (or sometimes Lai Daihan/Lai Tai Han) (''lai Đại Hàn'' in Vietnamese: ; ko, 라이따이한) is a Vietnamese term for a racially mixed person born to a South Korean father and a Vietnamese mother, specifically during t ...
* Bodo League massacre
The Bodo League massacre () was a massacre and war crime against communists and suspected sympathizers (many of whom were civilians who had no connection with communism or communists) that occurred in the summer of 1950 during the Korean War. Es ...
* Prostitution in South Korea
Prostitution in South Korea is illegal, but according to The Korea Women's Development Institute, the sex trade in Korea was estimated to amount to 14 trillion South Korean won ( $13 billion) in 2007, roughly 1.6% of the nation's gross domestic ...
References
Bibliography
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External links
Combating Trafficking in Persons (CTIP)
* , United States Forces Korea
United States Forces Korea (USFK) is a Unified Combatant Command#Subordinate Unified Command, sub-unified command of United States Indo-Pacific Command, U.S. Indo-Pacific Command (USINDOPACOM). USFK is the joint headquarters for U.S. combat-re ...
Nov 20, 2012
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* Cho, Grace M
''Tastes of War: A Korean American daughter's exploration of food and family history, in order to understand her mother's schizophrenia.''
The Feminist Press, May 18, 2021. .
{{Russia–United States relations
Allied occupation of Korea
Anti-Americanism
Civilians in war
Forced prostitution
Human trafficking in South Korea
Korean-American history
Military brothels
Philippines–South Korea relations
Philippines–United States relations
Prostitution in South Korea
Russia–South Korea relations
Russia–United States relations
South Korea–United States relations
United States in the Korean War
United States military in South Korea
United States military scandals
Wartime sexual violence
Women in war in East Asia
Women in warfare post-1945