Waxiang (; ) is a divergent variety of
Chinese
Chinese can refer to:
* Something related to China
* Chinese people, people of Chinese nationality, citizenship, and/or ethnicity
**''Zhonghua minzu'', the supra-ethnic concept of the Chinese nation
** List of ethnic groups in China, people of va ...
,
spoken by the
Waxiang people
The Waxiang people () are an unrecognized ethnic group living along the Yuanjiang River in western Hunan, China. They call themselves Huaxiang people (IPA::/wa33 ɕioŋ55/) and they speak Waxiang Chinese. Compared to the Han, Miao and Tujia pe ...
, an
unrecognized ethnic minority group in the northwestern part of
Hunan
Hunan (, ; ) is a landlocked province of the People's Republic of China, part of the South Central China region. Located in the middle reaches of the Yangtze watershed, it borders the province-level divisions of Hubei to the north, Jiangxi to ...
province,
China
China, officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), is a country in East Asia. It is the world's most populous country, with a population exceeding 1.4 billion, slightly ahead of India. China spans the equivalent of five time zones and ...
. Waxiang is a distinct language, very different from its surrounding
Southwestern Mandarin
Southwestern Mandarin (), also known as Upper Yangtze Mandarin (), is a Mandarin Chinese language spoken in much of Southwest China, including in Sichuan, Yunnan, Chongqing, Guizhou, most parts of Hubei, the northwestern part of Hunan, the northe ...
,
Xiang Chinese
Xiang or Hsiang (; ); Changsha Xiang: ''sian1 y3'', also known as Hunanese (), is a group of linguistically similar and historically related Sinitic languages, spoken mainly in Hunan province but also in northern Guangxi and parts of neighborin ...
and the Hmongic
Qo Xiong languages.
Classification
As noted by
Laurent Sagart
Laurent Sagart (; born 1951) is a senior researcher at the Centre de recherches linguistiques sur l'Asie orientale (CRLAO – UMR 8563) unit of the Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS).
Biography
Born in Paris in 1951, he earned hi ...
(2011)
[Sagart, Laurent. 2011. Classifying Chinese dialects/Sinitic languages on shared innovations. Talk given at Centre de recherches linguistiques sur l’Asie orientale, Norgent sur Marne.] and others,
[de Sousa, Hilário. 2015]
The Far Southern Sinitic Languages as part of Mainland Southeast Asia
In Enfield, N.J. & Comrie, Bernard (eds.), Languages of Mainland Southeast Asia: The state of the art (Pacific Linguistics 649), 356–439. Berlin: De Gruyter Mouton. . Waxiang appears to share some words with the
Caijia language
Caijia () is an endangered Sino-Tibetan language spoken in an area centred on Bijie, in the west of the Chinese province of Guizhou. It was first documented by Chinese researchers in the 1980s. It has been described by different authors as a rela ...
of western
Guizhou
Guizhou (; formerly Kweichow) is a landlocked province in the southwest region of the People's Republic of China. Its capital and largest city is Guiyang, in the center of the province. Guizhou borders the autonomous region of Guangxi to t ...
. Sagart (2011) considers Caijia to be a sister of Waxiang. Currently, Waxiang is classified as a divergent Chinese variety rather than a non-Sinitic language.
Similarities among
Old Chinese
Old Chinese, also called Archaic Chinese in older works, is the oldest attested stage of Chinese language, Chinese, and the ancestor of all modern varieties of Chinese. The earliest examples of Chinese are divinatory inscriptions on oracle bones ...
, Waxiang, Caijia, and
Bai have also been pointed out by Wu & Shen (2010).
Qu & Tang (2017) show that Waxiang and Miao (
Qo Xiong) have had little mutual influence on each other.
Distribution
Waxianghua is found in
Luxi,
Guzhang
Guzhang County () is a county of Hunan Province, China. The county is the 2nd least populous administrative unit of the counties or county-level cities (after Shaoshan City) in the province, it is under the administration of Xiangxi Autonomous ...
and
Yongshun
Yongshun County () is a county of Hunan Province, China. It is under the administration of Xiangxi Autonomous Prefecture.
Located on the western part of Hunan and the northeastern Xiangxi, the county is bordered to the northeast by Sangzhi Cou ...
counties in
Xiangxi Tujia and Miao Autonomous Prefecture
Xiangxi Tujia and Miao Autonomous Prefecture (; Tujia: Xianxxix bifzivkar befkar zifzifzoux; Miao: Xangdxid tutjadcul maolcul zibzhibzhoud) is an autonomous prefecture of the People's Republic of China. It is located in northwestern Hunan provin ...
,
Zhangjiajie
Zhangjiajie (), also known in Tujia language as ''Zhangx jif avlar'' /dzaŋ˩ ji˥ a˩.la˥/, is a prefecture-level city in the northwestern part of Hunan Province, China. It comprises the district of Yongding, Wulingyuan and counties of Cili a ...
prefecture-level city (in Dayong ), and
Chenxi,
Xupu
Xupu County () is a county of Hunan Province, China, it is under the administration of Huaihua Prefecturel-level City.
Located on the west central Hunan, the county is bordered to the north by Yuanling County, to the northeast by Anhua County, t ...
and
Yuanling
Yuanling County () is a county of Hunan, Hunan Province, China, it is under the administration of Huaihua, Huaihua Prefecturel-level City.
Located in northwest of the province, Yuanling is in the border locations of Huaihua, Xiangxi Tujia and Mia ...
counties in
Huaihua
Huaihua () is a prefecture-level city in the southwest of Hunan province, China. It covers and is bordered by Xiangxi to the northwest, Zhangjiajie and Changde to the north, Yiyang, Loudi and Shaoyang to the east, Guilin and Liuzhou of Guangxi ...
prefecture-level city. Neighboring languages include
Southwestern Mandarin
Southwestern Mandarin (), also known as Upper Yangtze Mandarin (), is a Mandarin Chinese language spoken in much of Southwest China, including in Sichuan, Yunnan, Chongqing, Guizhou, most parts of Hubei, the northwestern part of Hunan, the northe ...
,
Xiang Chinese
Xiang or Hsiang (; ); Changsha Xiang: ''sian1 y3'', also known as Hunanese (), is a group of linguistically similar and historically related Sinitic languages, spoken mainly in Hunan province but also in northern Guangxi and parts of neighborin ...
,
Tujia,
Qo Xiong, and
Hm Nai.
* means 'speech' in Mandarin Chinese,
* means 'rural' in Mandarin Chinese
* means 'speech' in Southern Chinese dialects.
The word is only a phonetic transcription.
Wu & Shen (2010) report Waxianghua to be spoken in the following villages.
*
Yuanling County
Yuanling County () is a county of Hunan Province, China, it is under the administration of Huaihua Prefecturel-level City.
Located in northwest of the province, Yuanling is in the border locations of Huaihua, Xiangxi, Zhangjiajie, Changde and Yi ...
: Qingshuiping , Maxipu , Taichang , Wusu , Liangshuijing
*
Luxi County: Basheping , Shangbao , Liangjiatan , Baisha
*
Guzhang County
Guzhang County () is a county of Hunan Province, China. The county is the 2nd least populous administrative unit of the counties or county-level cities (after Shaoshan City) in the province, it is under the administration of Xiangxi Autonomous ...
: Linchang of Gaowangjie , Gaofeng (in Taojin , Beishuiping , etc.), Yantouzhai , Shanzao , Yezhu , Hepeng , Caotan
*
Chenxi County
Chenxi County () is a county in Hunan Province, China, it is under the administration of Huaihua prefecture-level City.
Located on the north of the province, it is adjacent to the north of the city proper of Huaihua. The county is bordered to th ...
: Tianwan , Banqiao , Chuanxiyi , Tanjiafang
*
Xupu County
Xupu County () is a county of Hunan Province, China, it is under the administration of Huaihua Prefecturel-level City.
Located on the west central Hunan, the county is bordered to the north by Yuanling County, to the northeast by Anhua County, t ...
: Rangjiaxi , Daweixi , Muxi
*
Yongshun County
Yongshun County () is a county of Hunan Province, China. It is under the administration of Xiangxi Autonomous Prefecture.
Located on the western part of Hunan and the northeastern Xiangxi, the county is bordered to the northeast by Sangzhi Coun ...
: Limin , Zhenxi , Xiaoxi of Wangcun Township
Liubaohua , a dialect closely related to Waxianghua, is spoken in several villages in southeastern Guazhang County (including in Shaojitian Village , Shanzao Township ) and parts of Luxi County. Liubaohua is spoken in the following locations (Zou 2013).
*
Guzhang County
Guzhang County () is a county of Hunan Province, China. The county is the 2nd least populous administrative unit of the counties or county-level cities (after Shaoshan City) in the province, it is under the administration of Xiangxi Autonomous ...
**Shanzao Township : Huoma , Gaozhai , Shaojitian , Modao
**Yantouzhai Township : Yinping , Zimuping , Wangouxi , etc.
*
Luxi County: Basheping Township
*
Yuanling County
Yuanling County () is a county of Hunan Province, China, it is under the administration of Huaihua Prefecturel-level City.
Located in northwest of the province, Yuanling is in the border locations of Huaihua, Xiangxi, Zhangjiajie, Changde and Yi ...
: Maxipu Town and Shaojiwan Town
Conservative features
Waxiang preserves a number of features of
Old Chinese
Old Chinese, also called Archaic Chinese in older works, is the oldest attested stage of Chinese language, Chinese, and the ancestor of all modern varieties of Chinese. The earliest examples of Chinese are divinatory inscriptions on oracle bones ...
not found in most modern
varieties of Chinese
Chinese, also known as Sinitic, is a branch of the Sino-Tibetan language family consisting of hundreds of local varieties, many of which are not mutually intelligible. Variation is particularly strong in the more mountainous southeast of main ...
, such as the initial *l- (which became a voiced dental stop in
Middle Chinese
Middle Chinese (formerly known as Ancient Chinese) or the Qieyun system (QYS) is the historical variety of Chinese recorded in the '' Qieyun'', a rime dictionary first published in 601 and followed by several revised and expanded editions. The ...
):
* Guzhang li
6, OC (
Baxter–Sagart) > MC >
Mandarin
Mandarin or The Mandarin may refer to:
Language
* Mandarin Chinese, branch of Chinese originally spoken in northern parts of the country
** Standard Chinese or Modern Standard Mandarin, the official language of China
** Taiwanese Mandarin, Stand ...
'earth, ground'
* Guzhang lu
6, OC > MC > Mandarin 'big'
* Guzhang li
2, OC > MC > Mandarin 'slow'
* Guzhang luʔ
8, OC > MC > Mandarin 'read'
Waxiang also has some cases of for Old Chinese *r- (which became ''l-'' in Middle Chinese):
* Guzhang za
2, OC > MC > Mandarin 'pear tree, pear'
* Guzhang zɛ
2, OC > > MC > Mandarin 'come'
In a number of words, Waxiang and
Proto-Min
Proto-Min is a comparative reconstruction of the common ancestor of the Min group of varieties of Chinese. Min varieties developed in the relative isolation of the Chinese province of Fujian and eastern Guangdong, and have since spread to Taiwan ...
have
affricate
An affricate is a consonant that begins as a stop and releases as a fricative, generally with the same place of articulation (most often coronal). It is often difficult to decide if a stop and fricative form a single phoneme or a consonant pair. ...
initials where Middle Chinese has ''sy-'':
* Guzhang tsu
3, pMin
B, OC > MC > Mandarin 'water'
* Guzhang tɕiəu
1, pMin
A, OC > MC > Mandarin 'writing'
In some words, Waxiang and Proto-Min have voiced affricates where Middle Chinese has ''y-'':
[Baxter & Sagart (2014), p. 189.]
* Guzhang dzoŋ
3, pMin
B, OC > MC > Mandarin 'itch'
Waxiang and Caijia
Sagart argues that Waxiang and
Caijia together constitute the earliest branching of Chinese.
Like Waxiang, Caijia preserves Old Chinese *l-, has a voiced fricative reflex of *r-, and retains the Old Chinese word 'love', which has been replaced by in all other Chinese varieties.
Waxiang and Caijia also share two words not found in other Chinese varieties:
*'two': Caijia , Waxiang , from Old Chinese 'twice'
*'milk': Caijia , Waxiang , which Sagart suggests is a non-Sinitic word
See also
*
Badong Yao language
Badong Yao language (Chinese:八垌瑶语) is an unclassified Sinitic language spoken by the Yao people in Xinning County, Hunan
Xinning County () is a county in the Province of Hunan, China, it is under the administration of Shaoyang City. ...
*
Yeheni language
Yeheni (爷贺尼; Pingdi Yao 平地瑶) is an unclassified Sinitic language spoken by the Yao people in Jianghua Yao Autonomous County
Jianghua ( "''Jianghua Yao Autonomous County''", ; usually referred to as "''Jianghua County''", ) is an au ...
References
Further reading
* Hilary Chappell (2012)
"Typology of an isolated Sinitic language: Waxiang, a language of northwestern Hunan, China"(presentation slides), keynote at ''45th International Conference on Sino-Tibetan Languages and Linguistics''.
*
*Yang Wei
蔚 1999. ''A study of Yuanling Xianghua''
陵乡话研究 Changsha: Hunan Educational Press
南敎育出版社
*Yang Wei
蔚 2010. ''Xianghua comparative phonology''
西乡话语音研究 Guangzhou: Guangdong Press
东省出版集团
{{Chinese language
Yuanling County
Varieties of Chinese
Sino-Tibetan languages