The War of Mutina (December 44 – April 43 BC; also called the Mutina war) was a

civil war A civil war or intrastate war is a war between organized groups within the same state (or country). The aim of one side may be to take control of the country or a region, to achieve independence for a region, or to change government policies ...

between the

Roman Senate The Roman Senate ( la, Senātus Rōmānus) was a governing and advisory assembly in ancient Rome. It was one of the most enduring institutions in Roman history, being established in the first days of the city of Rome (traditionally founded in ...

and

Mark Antony Marcus Antonius (14 January 1 August 30 BC), commonly known in English as Mark Antony, was a Roman politician and general who played a critical role in the transformation of the Roman Republic from a constitutional republic into the autoc ...

in northern

Italy Italy ( it, Italia ), officially the Italian Republic, ) or the Republic of Italy, is a country in Southern Europe. It is located in the middle of the Mediterranean Sea, and its territory largely coincides with the homonymous geographical re ...

. It was the first civil war after the

assassination of Julius Caesar Julius Caesar, the Roman dictator, was assassinated by a group of senators on the Ides of March (15 March) of 44 BC during a meeting of the Senate at the Curia of Pompey of the Theatre of Pompey in Rome where the senators stabbed Caesar 23 ti ...

. The main issue of the war were attempts by the Senate to resist Antony's forceful assumption of the strategically important provinces of

Trans Trans- is a Latin prefix meaning "across", "beyond", or "on the other side of". Used alone, trans may refer to: Arts, entertainment, and media * Trans (festival), a former festival in Belfast, Northern Ireland, United Kingdom * ''Trans'' (film ...

- and

Cisalpine Gaul Cisalpine Gaul ( la, Gallia Cisalpina, also called ''Gallia Citerior'' or ''Gallia Togata'') was the part of Italy inhabited by Celts (Gauls) during the 4th and 3rd centuries BC. After its conquest by the Roman Republic in the 200s BC it was con ...

from their governors. The Senate, led by

Cicero Marcus Tullius Cicero ( ; ; 3 January 106 BC – 7 December 43 BC) was a Roman statesman, lawyer, scholar, philosopher, and academic skeptic, who tried to uphold optimate principles during the political crises that led to the estab ...

and the consuls (

Aulus Hirtius Aulus Hirtius (; – 43 BC) was consul of the Roman Republic in 43 BC and a writer on military subjects. He was killed during his consulship in battle against Mark Antony at the Battle of Mutina. Biography He was a legate of Julius Caesar's sta ...

and

Gaius Vibius Pansa Gaius Vibius Pansa Caetronianus (died 22 April 43 BC) was consul of the Roman Republic in 43 BC. Although supporting Gaius Julius Caesar during the Civil War, he pushed for the restoration of the Republic upon Caesar’s death. He died of injuri ...

) attempted to woo Julius Caesar's heir (today known in this period as

Octavian Caesar Augustus (born Gaius Octavius; 23 September 63 BC – 19 August AD 14), also known as Octavian, was the first Roman emperor; he reigned from 27 BC until his death in AD 14. He is known for being the founder of the Roman Pri ...

) to fight against Antony. Octavian, however, would pursue his own agenda. The consuls, with Octavian, led troops into northern Italy against Antony and won two battles at Forum Gallorum and

Mutina Modena (, , ; egl, label= Modenese, Mòdna ; ett, Mutna; la, Mutina) is a city and ''comune'' (municipality) on the south side of the Po Valley, in the Province of Modena in the Emilia-Romagna region of northern Italy. A town, and seat ...

(14 and 21 April 43 BC). After the two consuls were mortally wounded at those battles, there emerged a political vacuum. Octavian – with the support of his men – demanded the consulship from the Senate and marched on Rome. After taking control of the city, Octavian and one of his kinsmen,

Quintus Pedius Quintus Pedius ( – late 43 BC) was a Roman politician and general who lived during the late Republic. He served as a military officer under Julius Caesar for most of his career. Serving with Caesar during the civil war, he was elected praetor i ...

, were irregularly elected consuls. They forced through legislation which had the effect of outlawing Julius Caesar's killers before starting negotiations with Antony. The negotiations resulted in the two men reconciling. With Lepidus, they then formed the

Second Triumvirate The Second Triumvirate was an extraordinary commission and magistracy created for Mark Antony, Marcus Aemilius Lepidus, and Octavian to give them practically absolute power. It was formally constituted by law on 27 November 43 BC with a ...

Background

A group of senators, calling themselves the ''liberatores'' and led by

Marcus Junius Brutus Marcus Junius Brutus (; ; 85 BC – 23 October 42 BC), often referred to simply as Brutus, was a Roman politician, orator, and the most famous of the assassins of Julius Caesar. After being adopted by a relative, he used the name Quintus Serv ...

, assassinated Julius Caesar on 15 March 44 BC at a meeting of the Senate. Among the conspirators were many aristocrats who had supported Caesar during the last civil war. The killers were driven largely by a belief that Caesar's perpetual dictatorship was undermining the republic. In the immediate aftermath of Caesar's death, an uneasy truce emerged in Rome. The ''liberatores'' and the Caesarians in government – led by consul Mark Antony, ''

magister equitum The , in English Master of the Horse or Master of the Cavalry, was a Roman magistrate appointed as lieutenant to a dictator. His nominal function was to serve as commander of the Roman cavalry in time of war, but just as a dictator could be nomi ...

'' Marcus Aemilius Lepidus, and consul-designate

– reached an agreement to offer amnesty for Caesar's death and ratify the dead dictator's ''acta''. A public funeral was also scheduled; during and after the funeral, Antony whipped up the urban plebs into hysterical mourning for Caesar, which also had the intended effect of shifting public opinion against the tyrannicides. In mid-April, public opinion forced

and

Gaius Cassius Longinus Gaius Cassius Longinus (c. 86 BC – 3 October 42 BC) was a Roman senator and general best known as a leading instigator of the plot to assassinate Julius Caesar on 15 March 44 BC. He was the brother-in-law of Brutus, another leader of the cons ...

, the lead tyrannicides and both praetors that year, to flee Rome. Antony secured for himself a number of allies. He arranged for Lepidus' irregular appointment as '' pontifex maximus'' and formed with him a marriage alliance. He also supported Publius Cornelius Dolabella's assumption of a suffect consulship and assigned him to the province of

Syria Syria ( ar, سُورِيَا or سُورِيَة, translit=Sūriyā), officially the Syrian Arab Republic ( ar, الجمهورية العربية السورية, al-Jumhūrīyah al-ʻArabīyah as-Sūrīyah), is a Western Asian country loc ...

. Also in April, Caesar's young heir

arrived at Rome from Illyricum; he loitered in Italy, building support among Caesar's veterans, before he accepted his inheritance in May. Octavian's arrival was met hostilely by Antony. Tension between the two quickly developed. Octavian petitioned for Antony to disburse Caesar's inheritance so that he could fulfil the terms of Caesar's will, which involved distributing 300 sesterces a man to the plebs; Antony delayed, probably on grounds that time was needed to divide Caesar's personal property from properties that belonged to the state. Octavian moved to sell his own property to raise money and fulfil the terms, gaining substantial popularity among the plebs. The politics of this period are "difficult to assess". Writing in the ''

Cambridge Ancient History ''The Cambridge Ancient History'' is a multi-volume work of ancient history from Prehistory to Late Antiquity, published by Cambridge University Press. The first series, consisting of 12 volumes, was planned in 1919 by Irish historian J. B. Bur ...

'',

Elizabeth Rawson Elizabeth Donata Rawson, FBA (13 April 1934 – 10 December 1988''The Cambridge Ancient History'' (Cambridge University Press, 1994), vol. 9, preface, p. xvii.) was a classical scholar known primarily for her work in the intellectual history of ...

explains: Antony then toured Italy, ostensibly to settle veterans, but actually to drum up military support; at the same time, Octavian and Brutus sponsored games to build urban support to their causes. On 2 June 44 BC, Antony forced through an illegal bill reassigning provinces. The bill was "trebly irregular because it was not a ''dies comitialis'', due notice had not been given, and violence was used". It moved Antony from his prospective province of Macedonia to Trans- and Cisalpine Gauls for a term of five years. It cemented Dolabella's position in Syria also for five years. He then snubbed Brutus and Cassius by assigning them to the duty of purchasing grain in Asia and Sicily.

Course of the war

Political developments

Starting in September 44 BC, Cicero started to deliver a series of speeches against Antony, called the ''Philippics'' (in honour of

Demosthenes Demosthenes (; el, Δημοσθένης, translit=Dēmosthénēs; ; 384 – 12 October 322 BC) was a Greek statesman and orator in ancient Athens. His orations constitute a significant expression of contemporary Athenian intellectual prow ...

' denunciations of

Philip II of Macedon Philip II of Macedon ( grc-gre, Φίλιππος ; 382 – 21 October 336 BC) was the king ('' basileus'') of the ancient kingdom of Macedonia from 359 BC until his death in 336 BC. He was a member of the Argead dynasty, founders of the ...

). The whole exchange apparently emerged from Antony's anger over Cicero's failure to attend a Senate meeting at which honours for Caesar were voted upon; after Antony inveighed against Cicero, he responded with the ''First Philippic'', criticising Antony "with comparative moderation"; this provoked a further response from Antony, forcing Cicero to withdraw from the city to his villa in Campania. Around the same time, Antony started also to inveigh against the ''liberatores'', accusing them of

parricide Parricide refers to the deliberate killing of one’s own father and mother, spouse (husband or wife), children, and/or close relative. However, the term is sometimes used more generally to refer to the intentional killing of a near relative. It ...

and treason. Late in the year, Antony presided over the assignment of praetorian provinces, putting his brother

Gaius Gaius, sometimes spelled ''Gajus'', Kaius, Cajus, Caius, was a common Latin praenomen; see Gaius (praenomen). People *Gaius (jurist) (), Roman jurist *Gaius Acilius *Gaius Antonius *Gaius Antonius Hybrida *Gaius Asinius Gallus *Gaius Asinius Pol ...

in the strategically-important Macedonia. Brutus and Cassius were assigned to Crete and Cyrene but Brutus, with the support of Macedonia's then-current governor, moved to seize the province in advance of Gaius Antonius arrival. Antony's attempts to champion Caesar's memory were regularly outflanked by Octavian. Through the summer, he also lost support among the Caesarian ex-consuls in the Senate. By November 44 BC, there were rumours that Octavian was planning to have Antony killed; Antony had left the city with an army to seize Cisalpine Gaul from its governor –

Decimus Junius Brutus Albinus Decimus Junius Brutus Albinus (27 April 81 BC – September 43 BC) was a Roman general and politician of the late republican period and one of the leading instigators of Julius Caesar's assassination. He had previously been an important support ...

, one of the tyrannicides, – by force; and Octavian was raising a private army in southern Italy out of forces which Antony had transferred from Macedonia. Octavian and Cicero formed an alliance by the end of the year: Octavian's private army would be needed to fight Antony; Octavian needed Cicero to support him in the Senate. On 20 December, a dispatch arrived in Rome from Decimus Brutus announcing his intention to defend his province from Antony and that Antony had put him to siege in

(modern Modena). Cicero seized on the opportunity to deliver the ''Third Philippic'' against Antony, presenting Antony as a national enemy and praising Octavian and Decimus for their efforts opposing him; he then proposed, and received from the Senate, ratification of Decimus' position in Cisalpine Gaul, public thanks to Octavian for his a private army and opposition to Antony, and reversal of Antony's provincial allotments. Cicero was unable to secure Antony's declaration as a public enemy, but he nevertheless proclaimed that he had "laid the basis for a ''res publica". Days later, on 1 January, new consuls were inaugurated:

Gaius Vibius Pansa Caetronianus Gaius Vibius Pansa Caetronianus (died 22 April 43 BC) was consul of the Roman Republic in 43 BC. Although supporting Gaius Julius Caesar during the Civil War, he pushed for the restoration of the Republic upon Caesar’s death. He died of injuri ...

and

. Pansa started a debate in the Senate forthwith. Octavian's then-private command was legitimised with ''imperium pro praetore''; he was also inducted into the Senate with consular status and granted the right to stand for the consulship a decade early. Decimus Brutus was also officially thanked by the Senate for standing up to Antony and not abandoning his province. Cicero requested a ''

senatus consultum ultimum The ''senatus consultum ultimum'' ("final decree of the Senate", often abbreviated to SCU) is the modern term given to resolutions of the Roman Senate lending its moral support for magistrates to use the full extent of their powers and ignore th ...

'' against Antony but the motion was rejected. Beyond Cicero, there also was the influential pro-Antonian consular

Quintus Fufius Calenus Quintus Fufius Calenus (died 40 BC) was a Roman general, and consul in 47 BC. As tribune of the plebeians in 61 BC, he was chiefly instrumental in securing the acquittal of the notorious Publius Clodius when charged with having profaned the myster ...

; a close friend of Antony's, he attempted through the beginning of the year to urge for peace with Antony as long as possible. At Calenus' urging, the Senate voted to send an embassy to Antony consisting of the ex-consuls

Servius Sulpicius Rufus Servius Sulpicius Rufus (c. 105 BC – 43 BC), was a Roman orator and jurist. He was consul in 51 BC. Biography Early life He studied rhetoric with Cicero, accompanying him to Rhodes in 78 BC, though Sulpicius decided subsequently to pursue lega ...

, Lucius Marcius Philippus (Octavian's step-father), and Lucius Calpurnius Piso. Cicero gave a further speech, the ''Seventh Philippic'', which must have changed some minds, for soon afterwards, levies were undertaken; the consul Hirtius was voted command of the republic's forces. Guerra di Modena

The embassy returned on 1 February 43 BC. Antony's counterproposals were rejected. At this point, Lucius Julius Caesar moved the declaration of a '' tumultus'' to formalise the levying of troops. This was passed over Cicero's motion for a declaration noting a state of war. A ''

'' may have been declared against Antony (as reported by Dio). Regardless, the republic's armies marched north to relieve Decimus Brutus from the siege at Mutina. On 20 March, entreaties from Lepidus (in Narbonensis) and Plancus (in Transalpine Gaul) to avoid a war were rejected: Cicero, delivering the ''Thirteenth Philippic'', inveighed against Antony as a brigand and warned the Senate of the dangers of an Antonian victory. The Senate also called Plancus to join the relief armies at Mutina but he dithered, blaming his troops.

Battles

The northward march of Hirtius and Pansa's armies was the height of the crisis. Cicero wrote to

Lucius Munatius Plancus Lucius Munatius Plancus ( – ) was a Roman senator, consul in 42 BC, and censor in 22 BC with Paullus Aemilius Lepidus. Along with Talleyrand eighteen centuries later, he is one of the classic historical examples of men who have m ...

on 30 March 43 BC that he expected "all the fortunes of the republic" would be decided in a single battle that would soon occur. An abortive attempt by Calenus and Piso to send peace envoys again failed after Cicero, having been nominated as an envoy, refused to treat with Antony. Pansa left the city at the head of four legions of recruits, leaving the city in command of Marcus Caecilius Cornutus and a single legion.

Forum Gallorum (14 April)

Hearing of Pansa's approach, Antony sent two legions away from his siege of Mutina to ambush the consul's army, but Hirtius and Octavian anticipated this, and sent the Martian legion and a praetorian cohort to Pansa's aid, triggering two battles near Forum Gallorum on 14 April. Antony's veterans still won the upper hand, inflicting heavy casualties on the reinforcements, while Pansa, who was mortally wounded in the fighting, retreated with his recruits to Bononia. On the return trip, however, Antony's tired troops were intercepted and routed by twenty-two cohorts of veterans under Hirtius. Octavian, meanwhile, was in charge of defending the army's camp and did so resolutely. In the aftermath, Hirtius, Pansa, and Octavian were all hailed ''

imperator The Latin word ''imperator'' derives from the stem of the verb la, imperare, label=none, meaning 'to order, to command'. It was originally employed as a title roughly equivalent to ''commander'' under the Roman Republic. Later it became a part o ...

'' by their troops. News of Pansa's defeat reached Rome first, triggering fears of Cicero planning a coup. After news of Hirtius' victory arrived on 20 April, Cicero was paraded from his house to the capitol and the Senate voted ''supplicationes'' for fifty days. Cicero then pushed for and received from the Senate honours for the two consuls, Octavian, and their soldiers.

Mutina (21 April)

Seven days after Forum Gallorum, on 21 April, Hirtius, Octavian, and Decimus Brutus fought Antony's army near Mutina. Decimus may have sallied forth from the city to assist the consular army. Hirtius and Octavian's armies successfully captured Antony's camp; Hirtius, however, was killed in heavy fighting. Antony, defeated, retreated in an attempt to join with Lepidus in Narbonensis.

Political reconfiguration

After the consuls' deaths

After news of the victories at Forum Gallorum and Mutina reached Rome, a decree was passed declaring Antony a public enemy (''

hostis The ancient Roman state encountered various kinds of external and internal emergencies. They had various responses to those issues. When faced with an emergency, the early Republic appointed dictators who would take charge of the emergency wi ...

''). News of the deaths of both consuls reached Rome, probably on 25 April, leading to a power vacuum at the top of government. The Senate, aware that the campaign could still be lost if Antony joined with Lepidus and Plancus on the far side of the Alps, was troubled when news arrived that Octavian allowed Antony to join with three legions of reinforcements by inaction. Further troubles emerged when Decimus – now voted overall command of the war – reported he was not in control of his army and that Octavian refused to follow orders. The lack of living consuls and the need to hold elections for the suffect consulship caused political paralysis in the middle of the republican war effort, which doomed Cicero's war plans. His coalition with Hirtius and Pansa, which had successfully reconciled moderate Caesarians and the ''liberatores'', fell apart in political infighting. Antony's army joined with Lepidus' army shortly after Decimus was unable to intercept it. On 30 May, Lepidus sent a letter claiming that his army had mutinied from his command and joined Antony's forces; he called for the Senate to make peace. Decimus Brutus in Gaul recommended to Cicero in a letter on 3 June that the legions from Africa and Sardinia be recalled to Italy along with Marcus Brutus' forces in Macedonia. Octavian's loyalty to the Senate also was in serious doubt; Appian reports that after Mutina, he opened communications with Antony and Lepidus, seeking to join with them to suppress the "Pompeians". Octavian, apparently hearing rumours that Cicero was intending to side-line him, also refused to send Pansa's former legion to Decimus Brutus. Legions under Octavian then declared in early June that they refused to serve under Decimus Brutus. This took everyone at Rome by surprise. While Plancus' forces had joined with Decimus' forces in Gaul against Antony and Lepidus' combined armies, the two armies were locked in a stalemate: Plancus wrote to Cicero on 28 July – in the last letter preserved – that he would attack if he were reinforced by Octavian's forces or legions from Africa. Worryingly, he also reported that Octavian was refusing to come to his aid.

Octavian assumes the consulship

The Senate, distrusting Octavian, attempted suborn his troops. This failed. Octavian then roused his army against the Senate in Rome. While the Senate attempted to appease him by giving Octavian command of the war on Antony and granting him more honours, this also failed. Octavian's soldiers demanded for him the consulship. When the Senate refused, he marched on Rome. Cornutus, in command of some legions from Africa and one legion of recruits, attempted to make a stand against Octavian's forces. The Senate moved a ''

'' against Octavian, but when Octavian's forces arrived, the garrison at Rome simply defected. Cornutus committed suicide and Octavian encamped outside the city. The Senate, intimidated by his forces, finally offered him the consulship and ten thousand sesterces to each of his men. Because an ''

interrex The interrex (plural interreges) was literally a ruler "between kings" (Latin ''inter reges'') during the Roman Kingdom and the Roman Republic. He was in effect a short-term regent. History The office of ''interrex'' was supposedly created follow ...

'' could not be appointed if there were any patrician magistrates, two men were irregularly appointed ''pro consulibus'' to hold consular elections. The following elections returned Octavian (aged 19) and one of his relatives,

; they took office on 19

Sextilis Sextilis ("sixth") or ''mensis Sextilis'' was the Latin name for what was originally the sixth month in the Roman calendar, when March ('' Martius'', "Mars' month") was the first of ten months in the year. After the calendar reform that produced ...

(later renamed August) 43 BC. Octavian had his adoption by Caesar ratified; Pedius had legislation enacted (the ''lex Pedia'') establishing a court to try Caesar's killers. After a single day trial, the ''liberatores'' as a lot were condemned and outlawed in absentia. They then lifted the declaration of Lepidus and Antony as public enemies. Under Lepidus' auspices, Octavian and Antony met at Bononia to form a compromise. The two, with Lepidus, then agreed to form a commission of three men with powers ''rei publicae constituendae''; Octavian and Antony would go to war against Caesar's killers. This commission, known today as the

, would be ratified by the ''

lex Titia The ''lex Titia'' was a Roman law passed on 27 November 43 BC that established the Triumvirate of Octavian, Mark Antony and Marcus Aemilius Lepidus for five years until the end of 38 BC. The triumvirate established by the law was then re ...

''. The alliance would be further consummated by Octavian's marriage to Antony's step-daughter. Within the year, the triumvirs started a series of

proscription Proscription ( la, proscriptio) is, in current usage, a 'decree of condemnation to death or banishment' (''Oxford English Dictionary'') and can be used in a political context to refer to state-approved murder or banishment. The term originated ...

s where prominent wealthy men and political enemies were marked for death: among them were Decimus Brutus and Cicero. Decimus Brutus was executed in Gaul during an attempt to flee to Marcus Brutus in Macedonia. Cicero was executed at his villa in Caieta on 7 December.

Cultural depictions

The war on Antony is depicted in the first half of the second season of the

HBO Home Box Office (HBO) is an American premium television network, which is the flagship property of namesake parent subsidiary Home Box Office, Inc., itself a unit owned by Warner Bros. Discovery. The overall Home Box Office business unit is ba ...

–

BBC #REDIRECT BBC #REDIRECT BBC Here i going to introduce about the best teacher of my life b BALAJI sir. He is the precious gift that I got befor 2yrs . How has helped and thought all the concept and made my success in the 10th board exam. ...

...