Walter Richard Miles (March 29, 1885 – May 15, 1978) was an American
psychologist
A psychologist is a professional who practices psychology and studies mental states, perceptual, cognitive, emotional, and social processes and behavior. Their work often involves the experimentation, observation, and interpretation of how indi ...
and a president of the
American Psychological Association
The American Psychological Association (APA) is the largest scientific and professional organization of psychologists in the United States, with over 133,000 members, including scientists, educators, clinicians, consultants, and students. It ha ...
(APA). He best known for his development of the two-story rat maze, his research on low dose alcohol, the development of red night vision goggles for aviation pilots, and the reduction of performance in aging individuals.
However, the theme of his academic career was his fascination with apparatuses to measure behavior. C. James Goodwin (2003) noted that Miles "never became a leading figure in any particular area of research in psychology... but drifted from one area to another, with the direction of the drift determined often by the presence of a particular type of apparatus or an apparatus-related problem that intrigued him" (p. 58).
Early life
Born into a
Quaker
Quakers are people who belong to a historically Protestant Christian set of Christian denomination, denominations known formally as the Religious Society of Friends. Members of these movements ("theFriends") are generally united by a belie ...
family on March 29, 1885 in
Silverleaf, North Dakota. Richard Walter Miles was the son of Thomas Elwood Miles, a farmer and country store owner, and Sarah Caroline Miles.
His grandfather, Richard White, was a prosperous farmer in
Indiana
Indiana () is a U.S. state in the Midwestern United States. It is the 38th-largest by area and the 17th-most populous of the 50 States. Its capital and largest city is Indianapolis. Indiana was admitted to the United States as the 19th s ...
, but lost everything in the depression of the late 1870s.
Education
In 1901 Miles entered
Pacific Academy
Pacific Academy is a private Christian school in Surrey, British Columbia, Canada that spans from preschool to Grade 12. The school has 4 classes per grade, and has over 200 staff members as well as 1500 students. It was started by Jim Pattison, a ...
about 35 miles away from home.
During his one-year here, Miles worked for room and board in the president's house and played football.
After graduation, he attended
Pacific College in 1902 and graduated as
valedictorian
Valedictorian is an academic title for the highest-performing student of a graduating class of an academic institution.
The valedictorian is commonly determined by a numerical formula, generally an academic institution's grade point average (GPA ...
in 1906.
From 1906–1908 he attended
Earlham College
Earlham College is a private liberal arts college in Richmond, Indiana. The college was established in 1847 by the Religious Society of Friends (Quakers) and has a strong focus on Quaker values such as integrity, a commitment to peace and social ...
in
Indiana
Indiana () is a U.S. state in the Midwestern United States. It is the 38th-largest by area and the 17th-most populous of the 50 States. Its capital and largest city is Indianapolis. Indiana was admitted to the United States as the 19th s ...
and began working in a small psychology laboratory. It was here he first became interested in laboratory apparatuses as he worked his way through one of
Titchener's laboratory manuals in
experimental psychology
Experimental psychology refers to work done by those who apply experimental methods to psychological study and the underlying processes. Experimental psychologists employ human participants and animal subjects to study a great many topics, in ...
.
After graduating from Earlham, he moved home for the summer before accepting a teaching position in psychology and education at
William Penn College
William Penn University is a private university in Oskaloosa, Iowa. It was founded by members of the Religious Society of Friends (Quakers) in 1873 as Penn College. In 1933, the name was changed to William Penn College, and finally to William P ...
in Oskaloosa, Iowa.
He was offered $700 a year if married and $600 if not, so he married Elizabeth Mae Kirk and left the next day. While at Penn College, he was recruited by
Carl Seashore
Carl Emil Seashore, born Sjöstrand (January 28, 1866 – October 16, 1949) was a prominent American psychologist and educator. He was the author of numerous books and articles principally regarding the fields of speech–language pathology, music ...
to attend graduate school at Iowa.
While at Iowa, he first earned a master's degree in education and earned money by tutoring and selling insurance, however by the second year Seashore had convinced him to pursue psychology. His
dissertation focused on the accuracy of the voice in simple pitch singing and he completed his PhD in psychology in 1913.
Career
Wesleyan College/Carnegie Institution (1914–1922)
Miles began working as a
research scientist
A scientist is a person who conducts scientific research to advance knowledge in an area of the natural sciences.
In classical antiquity, there was no real ancient analog of a modern scientist. Instead, philosophers engaged in the philosophica ...
at
Wesleyan College
Wesleyan College is a private, liberal arts women's college in Macon, Georgia. Founded in 1836, Wesleyan was the first college in the world chartered to grant degrees to women.
History
The school was chartered on December 23, 1836, as the Geo ...
after receiving his PhD. He was recruited by
Raymond Dodge
Raymond Dodge (1871–1942) was an American experimental psychologist who studied the movements of the eye, developed an instrument known as the Tachistoscope to discover new eye movements and conduct experiments around reading. He began his educ ...
to fill a one-year position here while Dodge left to work with F.G. Benedict at the Carnegie Nutrition Institute.
When his year was up, he replaced Dodge at the Carnegie Nutrition Laboratory in Washington, DC where he remained until 1922.
During his time here, much of his research focused on combined psychological and
physiological
Physiology (; ) is the scientific study of functions and mechanisms in a living system. As a sub-discipline of biology, physiology focuses on how organisms, organ systems, individual organs, cells, and biomolecules carry out the chemical ...
measurements
His work was heavily influenced by the apparatus and experimental records Dodge had left behind. One notable area of research while at Carnegie was Miles' work on the reaction time of football players in collaboration with his graduate student Bernice Courtney Graves who was better known as B.C. Graves.
In line with Miles' love of apparatuses, the two constructed an apparatus to measure the effects of variations in signal calling on the speed at which the lineman moved in reaction to the signal for snapping the ball
While at the Carnegie Nutrition Laboratory, Miles was inspired by Dodge's work and conducted a host of important research on the psychological effects of low and moderate dose alcohol. Miles created various apparatuses to test the effects of alcohol including the pursuit pendulum to measure eye motion and response times of intoxicated subjects.
Psychologist C. James Goodwin reviewed Miles' work on alcohol research in a 2014 publication in the History of Psychology journal.
Goodwin noted that Miles published several papers and technical reports on this work. However, most notably Miles compiled a 298-page
monograph
A monograph is a specialist work of writing (in contrast to reference works) or exhibition on a single subject or an aspect of a subject, often by a single author or artist, and usually on a scholarly subject.
In library cataloging, ''monograph ...
in 1924 detailing five sets of studies that spanned over 10 years. He first examined the effects of moderate doses of alcohol (i.e., 14%–22% by weight) on behavior and demonstrated that this impairs motor skills. Specifically, he gave five male participants moderate doses of alcohol and demonstrated that alcohol reduces typing efficiency, finger movement speed, and horizontal eye movement speed. Miles came up with a novel method of disguising placebo beverages in this study that is still used today: wiping the rim of the glass with alcohol. In the second study, Miles used similar methodology as the first study with the exception of giving participants alcohol after eating a full meal to see if food diluted the effects of alcohol. It reduced adverse effects, but still impair performance. In the third study, Miles collaborated with
T. M. Carpenter to examine the effects of alcohol administered via rectal injection during sleep. Rectal injection of either alcohol or a saline solution was used to ensure the participant did not know if he was being administered alcohol or a placebo, and because it was believed that alcohol would be absorbed more quickly into the bloodstream than by oral administration. In the fourth study, Miles examined the effects of low dose alcohol on behavior by conducting a series of studies of two years with a 36-year-old male. This study lead to the fifth set of studies that further examined low dose alcohol using 8 subjects between the ages of 22 and 52. Collectively, this work gained Miles notoriety in the alcohol field and he became in expert in the field.
Miles' research on the effects of alcohol in the 1920s was fitting given the debate about alcohol that led to
National Prohibition
In the United States from 1920 to 1933, a nationwide constitutional law prohibited the production, importation, transportation, and sale of alcoholic beverages. The alcohol industry was curtailed by a succession of state legislatures, and ...
.
In 1917 before prohibition went into effect in 1920, President
Woodrow Wilson
Thomas Woodrow Wilson (December 28, 1856February 3, 1924) was an American politician and academic who served as the 28th president of the United States from 1913 to 1921. A member of the Democratic Party, Wilson served as the president of ...
cut the grain allotment to brewers and distillers maintaining that beer be reduced so that it could not contain more than 2.75% alcohol by weight, which is about 3.44% by volume today.
There was much debate about this with drys saying that this was insufficient and alcohol should be banned altogether and with wets saying that small doses cannot have negative effects. Miles, who occasionally drank himself, was supportive of
Prohibition
Prohibition is the act or practice of forbidding something by law; more particularly the term refers to the banning of the manufacture, storage (whether in barrels or in bottles), transportation, sale, possession, and consumption of alcoholic ...
and was suspicious of the wets claim. He started examining low doses of alcohol in 1919 right before prohibition went into effect.
Additionally, with the start of
World War I
World War I (28 July 1914 11 November 1918), often abbreviated as WWI, was one of the deadliest global conflicts in history. Belligerents included much of Europe, the Russian Empire, the United States, and the Ottoman Empire, with fightin ...
, he became involved with war-related projects and, in collaboration with Dodge, designed gas masks and studied the effects of severely restricted food intake.
However, the war had severed many relations Carnegie Laboratory had with researchers in Europe. As such, physiologist/chemist
Francis Benedict chose Miles to reestablish important connections across Europe.
As such, from April to August 1920 Miles visited 57 psychology and physiology laboratories and institutes across Europe to observe, record, and interact with researchers. The culmination of this trip was an unpublished 300-page detailed report of Miles' observations.
[Goodwin, C. J., & Royer, L. (Eds.). (2010). Walter Miles and his 1920 grand tour of European physiological and psychological laboratories. Akron, OH: The University of Akron Press.] This report was made available to the Archives of the History of American Psychology at the
University of Akron
The University of Akron is a public research university in Akron, Ohio. It is part of the University System of Ohio. As a STEM-focused institution, it focuses on industries such as polymers, advanced materials, and engineering. It is classified ...
and in September 2010 C. James Goodwin and Lizette Royer made this work available in print.
Stanford University (1922–1932)
Although Miles was happy at Carnegie, he missed teaching and the academic environment he briefly experienced in his year at Wesleyan. Thus, when Lewis Terman offered him a position at Stanford University in
Palo Alto
Palo Alto (; Spanish for "tall stick") is a charter city in the northwestern corner of Santa Clara County, California, United States, in the San Francisco Bay Area, named after a coastal redwood tree known as El Palo Alto.
The city was estab ...
, he readily accepted.
Not surprisingly, he continued researching a variety of topics and developed a range of apparatuses including the two-story rat maze while at Stanford. In fact, after Miles left to take a position at
Yale University
Yale University is a private research university in New Haven, Connecticut. Established in 1701 as the Collegiate School, it is the third-oldest institution of higher education in the United States and among the most prestigious in the wo ...
,
Ernest Hilgard
Ernest Ropiequet "Jack" Hilgard (July 25, 1904 – October 22, 2001) was an American psychologist and professor at Stanford University. He became famous in the 1950s for his research on hypnosis, especially with regard to pain control. Along wit ...
replaced him at
Stanford University
Stanford University, officially Leland Stanford Junior University, is a private research university in Stanford, California. The campus occupies , among the largest in the United States, and enrolls over 17,000 students. Stanford is consider ...
and noted "I found the open laboratory space literally packed with devices ready to be operated, reminding me of a modern science museum."
However, Miles is probably best known for his studies on human development in later stages of life that became known as the Stanford Later Maturity Studies.
Indeed, this work helped him build a reputation among his peers and led to his nomination and election as president of the
American Psychological Association
The American Psychological Association (APA) is the largest scientific and professional organization of psychologists in the United States, with over 133,000 members, including scientists, educators, clinicians, consultants, and students. It ha ...
in 1932.
[ This study included over 2,000 subjects from ages 6 to 95 who completed questionnaires, reaction time tasks, motor skills tests, and various anthropometric and physiological measures.]
Yale University (1932–1952)
Miles first came to Yale in 1930 before returning to Stanford in 1931. He came to Yale at the request of Dodge who asked Miles is there was "any possibility of inducing you to come here in a position parallel with mine with the expectation that within a few years you will take my place".[Dodge, R. (1930). Letter to Walter R. Miles, January 22, 1930. Raymond Dodge papers, Box M846, folder 5. Archives of the History of American Psychology, Center for the History of Psychology, The University of Akron, Akron, OH.] Dodge was suffering from Parkinson's disease and wanted Miles to take over. In 1932 Miles made Yale his permanent place of work before reaching the mandatory retirement age over twenty years later in 1952. GRAND. Although his appointment was primarily at the Department of Psychology, his affiliation with the Medical School influenced his research AJ His early years at Yale were focused on publishing his findings from the Stanford Later Maturity Study.[Hilgard, E. R. (1980). Walter Richard Miles: 1885–1978. The American Journal of Psychology, (3). 565.] His work published from data collected at Yale were minor and highly specialized
However, when World War II
World War II or the Second World War, often abbreviated as WWII or WW2, was a world war that lasted from 1939 to 1945. It involved the vast majority of the world's countries—including all of the great powers—forming two opposin ...
began Miles again became involved in war-related projects. He made one of the best contributions to aviation psychology when he discovered that while waiting to be called for flights, aviators could wear red-lensed goggles. These goggles helped with dark adaptation and could be worn at night so that flyers would immediately be ready for emergency flying when calls came.
The University of Istanbul (1954–1957)
Despite Miles' retirement from Yale, he remained active in psychology. Ernest Hilgard
Ernest Ropiequet "Jack" Hilgard (July 25, 1904 – October 22, 2001) was an American psychologist and professor at Stanford University. He became famous in the 1950s for his research on hypnosis, especially with regard to pain control. Along wit ...
heard about a visiting psychologist position at the University of Istanbul and recommended this to Miles given his love of travel. Miles took the position of Professor of Experimental Psychology and created and developed a laboratory there. Although his wife Catharine was also offered a position, she declined. Most notably, Miles supervised a dissertation of a woman who eventually accepted a position on the teaching staff there and the two edited a volume called the Istanbul Studies in Experimental Psychology.
Submarine Base at New London, Connecticut (1957–1965)
At the age of 72, Miles accepted a position as Scientific Director of the Submarine Base at New London, Connecticut
New London is a seaport city and a port of entry on the northeast coast of the United States, located at the mouth of the Thames River in New London County, Connecticut. It was one of the world's three busiest whaling ports for several decades ...
where he stayed for eight years. His work here included studying problems associated with living together in cramped quarters as well as the effects of long exposures to cold.
Honors
Miles received many awards and recognitions during his distinguished career. Miles was APA president in 1932 a year before accepting a position at Yale. Miles received the Howard Crosby Warren Medal from the Society of Experimental Psychologists
The Society of Experimental Psychologists (SEP), originally called the Society of Experimentalists, is an academic society for experimental psychologists. It was founded by Edward Bradford Titchener in 1904 to be an ongoing workshop in which memb ...
in 1949, and American Psychological Foundation
The American Psychological Foundation (abbreviated APF) is an American philanthropic organization dedicating to awarding research grants to psychologists in the early stages of their careers. It is affiliated with the American Psychological Associ ...
Gold Medal in 1962, and was elected to the National Academy of Science in 1933 and the America Philosophical Society in 1944.
Contributions to the field
Miles had several significant publications that influenced the field. His notable publications from his work with studying reaction time and physical exertion of football players:
*
*
His notable publications on apparatuses and inventions:
*
*
*
His notable publication from his work on alcohol and impairment:
*Miles, W. R. (1924). Alcohol and human efficiency: Experiments with moderate quantities and dilute solutions of ethyl alcohol
on human subjects. Washington, DC: The Carnegie Institute.
*Miles, W. R. (1918). Effect of alcohol on psycho-physiological functions (No. 266). Carnegie Institution of Washington.
Personal life
In 1908, Miles married his college sweetheart Elizabeth Mae Kirk and they had three children: Thomas, Caretta, and Marjorie. Kirk died in 1925, leaving Miles widowed with three teenage children. Two years later, he married psychologist Catharine Cox Miles, who was best known in the field of gifted education
Gifted education (also known as gifted and talented education (GATE), talented and gifted programs (TAG), or G/T education) is a broad group of special practices, procedures, and theories used in the education of children who have been identified a ...
. He had one child with Catharine named Anna and a son, Charles, who died at birth. Miles and Catharine collaborated throughout their careers and were together until Miles' death on May 15, 1978 in Sandy Springs, Maryland. Catharine died less than a decade later.
References
{{DEFAULTSORT:Miles, Walter Richard
1885 births
1978 deaths
Presidents of the American Psychological Association
University of Iowa alumni
Stanford University faculty
Yale University faculty
20th-century American psychologists