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During the Middle Ages, an (sometimes given as modern English: advocate; German: ; French: ) was an office-holder who was legally delegated to perform some of the secular responsibilities of a major feudal lord, or for an institution such as an abbey. Many such positions developed, especially in the Holy Roman Empire. Typically, these evolved to include responsibility for aspects of the daily management of agricultural lands, villages and cities. In some regions, advocates were governors of large provinces, sometimes distinguished by terms such as (in German).

While the term was eventually used to refer to many types of governorship and advocacy, one of the earliest and most important types of was the church advocate (). These were originally lay lords, who not only helped defend religious institutions in the secular world, but were also responsible for exercising lordly responsibilities within the church's lands, such as the handling of legal cases which might require the use of a death penalty. The positions of these office-holders eventually came to be seen as inheritable titles themselves, with their own feudal privileges connected to them.

The as an officer of a court of law first appeared in the 12th and 13th centuries, concomitant with the rediscovery of Roman law.

Nomenclature

The terms used in various European languages derive from a general Latin term for any person called upon ( la, ad vocatus) to stand for another.

Apart from the English terms "advocate" and "advowee", German terms are sometimes mentioned in English accounts of the Holy Roman Empire, and these include (, from Old High German, also or ; plural ). The territory or area of responsibility of a is called a (from ).

Related terms include nl, (land-) voogd; da, foged; no, fogd; sv, fogde; pl, wójt; fi, vouti; ; and ro, voit.

Ecclesiastical advocates

These advocates were specially bound to represent their clients before the secular courts. They exercised civil jurisdiction in the domain of the church or monastery, and were bound to protect the church with arms in the event of actual assault. Finally, it was their duty to lead the men-at-arms in the name of the church or monastery, and to command them in time of war. In return for these services the advocate received certain definite revenues from the possessions of the church, in the form of supplies or services, which he could demand, or in the form of a lien on the church property.

Such advocates are to be found even in Roman times; a Synod of Carthage decreed, in 401, that the emperor should be requested to provide, in conjunction with the bishops, for the churches. There is evidence, moreover, for such in Italy, at the close of the fifth century, but Pope Gregory I confined the office to members of the clergy. It was the duty of these to protect the poor, and to defend the rights and possessions of the church.

In the Frankish Kingdom, under the Merovingians, these lay representatives of the churches appear as and . This cites:
* Du Cange, ''Glossarium'' (ed. 1883, Niort), s. "Advocati"
* A. Luchaire, ''Manuel des institutions françaises'' (Paris, 1892)
* Herzog-Hauck, '' Realencyklopädie'' (ed. Leipzig, 1896), s. "Advocatus ecclesiae," where further references will be found. The concept of the was related to the Old German idea of the , or guardian, but also included some ideas of physical defence and legal representation (whence the connection with or "advocate").

Under the Carolingians, the duties of the church advocate were enlarged and defined according to the principles of government which prevailed in the reign of Charlemagne; henceforward we meet with the in the medieval sense. A Capitulary of about 790 ordained that the higher clergy, "for the sake of the church's honour, and the respect due to the priesthood" () should have advocates. Charlemagne, who obliged bishops, abbots and abbesses to maintain , commanded to exercise great care in the choice of persons to fill the office; they must be judicious men, familiar with the law, and owning property in the—then still administrative—countship (). The churches, monasteries and canonries, as such, alike received advocates, who by degrees assumed the position above defined.

Under the Carolingians it was made obligatory for bishops, abbots and abbesses to appoint such officials in every county where they held property. The office was not at first hereditary nor even for life, the being chosen, either by the abbot alone, or by the abbot and bishop concurrently with the count.

In the post-Carolingian period it developed into a hereditary office, and was held by powerful nobles, who constantly endeavoured to enlarge their rights in connection with the church or the monastery. Conciliar decrees were passed as early as the ninth century to protect ecclesiastical institutions against the excessive claims of their advocates, who indeed became in many ways a heavy burden to their ecclesiastical clients. They dealt with the possessions entrusted to them as with their own property, plundered the church estate, appropriated the tithes and other revenues, and oppressed in every possible way those whom they were appointed to protect.

The office, since it offered many advantages, was eagerly sought after. The excessive claims of the advocates gave rise to many disputes between them and the churches or monasteries. The bishops and abbots, who found their rights seriously curtailed, appealed to the Holy Roman Emperor and to the Pope for protection. In the twelfth century grave warnings issued from Rome, restraining the high-handed actions of the advocates under pain of severe ecclesiastical penalties, which still did not put an end to all the abuses that prevailed. On certain occasions, emperors and princes exercised the office of advocate, in which case they appointed deputy-advocates () to represent them.

From the time of Charlemagne, who had such officials appointed in ecclesiastical territories not directly under the control of his counts, the was a state functionary representing ecclesiastical dignitaries (such as bishops and abbots) or institutions in secular matters, and particularly before secular courts. Such representatives had been assigned to the church since late antiquity, as it was not supposed to act for itself in worldly affairs. Therefore, in areas such as the territories of abbeys and bishoprics, which by virtue of their ecclesiastical status were free (or immune) from the secular government of the local count (, in origin an administrative official in charge of a territory and reporting to the emperor), the fulfilled the function of a protective lordship, generally commanding the military contingents of such areas (). Beyond that, he administered the high justice instead of the count from the '' court'' (, or ).

In private and family monasteries (see proprietary church