Vole
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Voles are small
rodent Rodents (from Latin , 'to gnaw') are mammals of the order Rodentia (), which are characterized by a single pair of continuously growing incisors in each of the upper and lower jaws. About 40% of all mammal species are rodents. They are na ...
s that are relatives of
lemming A lemming is a small rodent, usually found in or near the Arctic in tundra biomes. Lemmings form the subfamily Arvicolinae (also known as Microtinae) together with voles and muskrats, which form part of the superfamily Muroidea, which also includ ...
s and
hamster Hamsters are rodents (order Rodentia) belonging to the subfamily Cricetinae, which contains 19 species classified in seven genera.Fox, Sue. 2006. ''Hamsters''. T.F.H. Publications Inc. They have become established as popular small pets. The ...
s, but with a stouter body; a longer, hairy tail; a slightly rounder head; smaller eyes and ears; and differently formed
molars The molars or molar teeth are large, flat teeth at the back of the mouth. They are more developed in mammals. They are used primarily to grind food during chewing. The name ''molar'' derives from Latin, ''molaris dens'', meaning "millstone to ...
(high-crowned with angular cusps instead of low-crowned with rounded cusps). They are sometimes known as meadow mice or field mice in North America. Vole species form the
subfamily In biological classification, a subfamily (Latin: ', plural ') is an auxiliary (intermediate) taxonomic rank, next below family but more inclusive than genus. Standard nomenclature rules end subfamily botanical names with "-oideae", and zoologi ...
Arvicolinae The Arvicolinae are a subfamily of rodents that includes the voles, lemmings, and muskrats. They are most closely related to the other subfamilies in the Cricetidae (comprising the hamsters and New World rats and mice). Some authorities place ...
with the
lemming A lemming is a small rodent, usually found in or near the Arctic in tundra biomes. Lemmings form the subfamily Arvicolinae (also known as Microtinae) together with voles and muskrats, which form part of the superfamily Muroidea, which also includ ...
s and the muskrats. There are approximately 155 different vole
species In biology, a species is the basic unit of classification and a taxonomic rank of an organism, as well as a unit of biodiversity. A species is often defined as the largest group of organisms in which any two individuals of the appropriate s ...
.


Description

Voles are small rodents that grow to , depending on the species. Females can have five to ten litters per year, though with an average lifespan of three months and requiring one month to adulthood, two litters is the norm.
Gestation Gestation is the period of development during the carrying of an embryo, and later fetus, inside viviparous animals (the embryo develops within the parent). It is typical for mammals, but also occurs for some non-mammals. Mammals during pregna ...
lasts for three weeks and the young voles reach
sexual maturity Sexual maturity is the capability of an organism to reproduce. In humans it might be considered synonymous with adulthood, but here puberty is the name for the process of biological sexual maturation, while adulthood is based on cultural definitio ...
in a month. As a result of this
biological exponential growth Biological exponential growth is the unrestricted growth of a population of organisms, occurring when resources in its habitat are unlimited. Most commonly apparent in species that reproduce quickly and asexually, like bacteria, exponential growth ...
, vole populations can grow very large within a short time. A mating pair can produce a hundred more voles in a year. Voles outwardly resemble several other small animals.
Mole Mole (or Molé) may refer to: Animals * Mole (animal) or "true mole", mammals in the family Talpidae, found in Eurasia and North America * Golden moles, southern African mammals in the family Chrysochloridae, similar to but unrelated to Talpida ...
s,
gopher Pocket gophers, commonly referred to simply as gophers, are burrowing rodents of the family Geomyidae. The roughly 41 speciesSearch results for "Geomyidae" on thASM Mammal Diversity Database are all endemic to North and Central America. They are ...
s,
mice A mouse ( : mice) is a small rodent. Characteristically, mice are known to have a pointed snout, small rounded ears, a body-length scaly tail, and a high breeding rate. The best known mouse species is the common house mouse (''Mus musculus' ...
, rats and even
shrew Shrews (family Soricidae) are small mole-like mammals classified in the order Eulipotyphla. True shrews are not to be confused with treeshrews, otter shrews, elephant shrews, West Indies shrews, or marsupial shrews, which belong to different fa ...
s have similar characteristics and
behavioral Behavior (American English) or behaviour (British English) is the range of actions and mannerisms made by individuals, organisms, systems or artificial entities in some environment. These systems can include other systems or organisms as well ...
tendencies. Voles thrive on small plants yet, like
shrews Shrews (family Soricidae) are small mole-like mammals classified in the order Eulipotyphla. True shrews are not to be confused with treeshrews, otter shrews, elephant shrews, West Indies shrews, or marsupial shrews, which belong to different ...
, they will eat dead animals and, like mice and rats, they can live on almost any nut or fruit. In addition, voles target plants more than most other small animals, making their presence evident. Voles readily
girdle A belt, especially if a cord or rope, is called a girdle if it is worn as part of Christian liturgical vestments, or in certain historical, literary or sports contexts. Girdles are used to close a cassock in Christian denominations, including th ...
small trees and ground cover much like a porcupine. This girdling can easily kill young plants and is not healthy for trees and other shrubs. Voles often eat succulent root systems and burrow under plants and eat away until the plant is dead. Bulbs are another favorite target for voles; their excellent burrowing and tunnelling skills give them access to sensitive areas without clear or early warning. The presence of large numbers of voles is often identifiable only after they have destroyed a number of plants. However, like other burrowing rodents, they also play beneficial roles, including dispersing nutrients throughout the upper soil layers.


Predators

Many
predator Predation is a biological interaction where one organism, the predator, kills and eats another organism, its prey. It is one of a family of common feeding behaviours that includes parasitism and micropredation (which usually do not kill th ...
s eat voles, including martens,
owl Owls are birds from the order Strigiformes (), which includes over 200 species of mostly solitary and nocturnal birds of prey typified by an upright stance, a large, broad head, binocular vision, binaural hearing, sharp talons, and feathers a ...
s,
hawk Hawks are bird of prey, birds of prey of the family Accipitridae. They are widely distributed and are found on all continents except Antarctica. * The subfamily Accipitrinae includes goshawks, sparrowhawks, sharp-shinned hawks and others. Th ...
s,
falcon Falcons () are birds of prey in the genus ''Falco'', which includes about 40 species. Falcons are widely distributed on all continents of the world except Antarctica, though closely related raptors did occur there in the Eocene. Adult falcons ...
s,
coyote The coyote (''Canis latrans'') is a species of canis, canine native to North America. It is smaller than its close relative, the wolf, and slightly smaller than the closely related eastern wolf and red wolf. It fills much of the same ecologica ...
s,
bobcat The bobcat (''Lynx rufus''), also known as the red lynx, is a medium-sized cat native to North America. It ranges from southern Canada through most of the contiguous United States to Oaxaca in Mexico. It is listed as Least Concern on the IUC ...
s,
fox Foxes are small to medium-sized, omnivorous mammals belonging to several genera of the family Canidae. They have a flattened skull, upright, triangular ears, a pointed, slightly upturned snout, and a long bushy tail (or ''brush''). Twelve sp ...
es,
raccoon The raccoon ( or , ''Procyon lotor''), sometimes called the common raccoon to distinguish it from other species, is a mammal native to North America. It is the largest of the procyonid family, having a body length of , and a body weight of ...
s,
snake Snakes are elongated, Limbless vertebrate, limbless, carnivore, carnivorous reptiles of the suborder Serpentes . Like all other Squamata, squamates, snakes are ectothermic, amniote vertebrates covered in overlapping Scale (zoology), scales. Ma ...
s,
weasel Weasels are mammals of the genus ''Mustela'' of the family Mustelidae. The genus ''Mustela'' includes the least weasels, polecats, stoats, ferrets and European mink. Members of this genus are small, active predators, with long and slender bo ...
s, domestic cats and
lynx A lynx is a type of wild cat. Lynx may also refer to: Astronomy * Lynx (constellation) * Lynx (Chinese astronomy) * Lynx X-ray Observatory, a NASA-funded mission concept for a next-generation X-ray space observatory Places Canada * Lynx, Ontar ...
es. Vole bones are often found in the pellets of the
short-eared owl The short-eared owl (''Asio flammeus'') is a widespread grassland species in the family Strigidae. Owls belonging to genus ''Asio'' are known as the eared owls, as they have tufts of feathers resembling mammalian ears. These "ear" tufts may or ...
, the
northern spotted owl The northern spotted owl (''Strix occidentalis caurina'') is one of three spotted owl subspecies. A western North American bird in the family Strigidae, genus '' Strix'', it is a medium-sized dark brown owl native to the Pacific Northwest. An ...
, the saw-whet owl, the barn owl, the
great gray owl The great grey owl (''Strix nebulosa'') (also great gray owl in American English) is a very large owl, documented as the world's largest species of owl by length. It is distributed across the Northern Hemisphere, and it is the only species in th ...
, and the
northern pygmy owl The northern pygmy owl (''Glaucidium californicum'') is a small owl native to western North America. Taxonomy Some taxonomic authorities, including the International Ornithologists' Union, separate this species from the mountain pygmy owl, the ...
.


Lifespan

The average life of the smaller vole species is three to six months. These voles rarely live longer than 12 months. Larger species, such as the
European water vole The European water vole or northern water vole (''Arvicola amphibius''), is a semi-aquatic rodent. It is often informally called the water rat, though it only superficially resembles a true rat. Water voles have rounder noses than rats, deep br ...
, live longer and usually die during their second, or rarely their third, winter. As many as 88% of voles are estimated to die within the first month of life.


Genetics and sexual behavior

The
prairie vole The prairie vole (''Microtus ochrogaster'') is a small vole found in central North America. The vole has long, coarse grayish-brown fur on the upper portion of the body and yellowish fur on the lower portion of the body. It has short ears and a ...
is a notable animal model for its monogamous social fidelity, since the male is usually socially faithful to the female, and shares in the raising of pups. The
woodland vole The woodland vole (''Microtus pinetorum'') is a small vole found in eastern North America. It is also known as the pine vole. Characteristics The woodland vole has a head and body length ranging between with a short tail. Its weight ranges be ...
is also usually monogamous. Another species from the same genus, the
meadow vole The eastern meadow vole (''Microtus pennsylvanicus''), sometimes called the field mouse or meadow mouse, is a North American vole found in eastern Canada and the United States. Its range extends farther south along the Atlantic coast. The west ...
, has promiscuously mating males, and scientists have changed adult male meadow voles' behavior to resemble that of prairie voles in experiments in which a viral vector was used to increase a single gene's expression within a particular brain region. The behavior is influenced by the number of repetitions of a particular string of microsatellite DNA. Male prairie voles with the longest DNA strings spend more time with their mates and pups than male prairie voles with shorter strings. However, other scientists have disputed the gene's relationship to monogamy, and cast doubt on whether the human version plays an analogous role. Physiologically, pair-bonding behavior has been shown to be connected to
vasopressin Human vasopressin, also called antidiuretic hormone (ADH), arginine vasopressin (AVP) or argipressin, is a hormone synthesized from the AVP gene as a peptide prohormone in neurons in the hypothalamus, and is converted to AVP. It then travel ...
,
dopamine Dopamine (DA, a contraction of 3,4-dihydroxyphenethylamine) is a neuromodulatory molecule that plays several important roles in cells. It is an organic compound, organic chemical of the catecholamine and phenethylamine families. Dopamine const ...
, and
oxytocin Oxytocin (Oxt or OT) is a peptide hormone and neuropeptide normally produced in the hypothalamus and released by the posterior pituitary. It plays a role in social bonding, reproduction, childbirth, and the period after childbirth. Oxytocin ...
levels, with the genetic influence apparently arising via the number of receptors for these substances in the brain; the pair-bonding behavior has also been shown in experiments to be strongly modifiable by administering some of these substances directly. Voles have a number of unusual chromosomal traits. Species have been found with 17 to 64 chromosomes. In some species, males and females have different chromosome numbers, a trait unusual in mammals, though it is seen in other organisms. Additionally, genetic material typically found on the Y chromosome has been found in both males and females in at least one species. In another species, the X chromosome contains 20% of the genome. All of these variations result in very little physical aberration; most vole species are virtually indistinguishable. In one species, the creeping vole ''
Microtus oregoni The creeping vole (''Microtus oregoni''), sometimes known as the Oregon meadow mouse, is a small rodent in the family Cricetidae. Ranging across the Pacific Northwest of North America, it is found in forests, grasslands, woodlands, and chaparra ...
'', it was discovered the Y chromosome has been lost entirely, the male-determining chromosome is actually a second X that is largely identical to the female X, and both the maternally inherited and male-specific sex chromosomes carry vestiges of the ancestral Y. This is quite unusual in mammals, as the XY system is fairly stable across a number of mammal species.


Mating system

Voles may be either monogamous or polygamous, which leads to differing patterns of
mate choice Mate choice is one of the primary mechanisms under which evolution can occur. It is characterized by a "selective response by animals to particular stimuli" which can be observed as behavior.Bateson, Paul Patrick Gordon. "Mate Choice." Mate Choic ...
and parental care. Environmental conditions play a large part in dictating which system is active in a given population. Voles live in colonies due to the young remaining in the family group for relatively long periods. In the genus ''
Microtus ''Microtus'' is a genus of voles found in North America, Europe and northern Asia. The genus name refers to the small ears of these animals. About 62 species are placed in the genus. They are stout rodents with short ears, legs and tails. They ea ...
'', monogamy is preferred when resources are spatially homogeneous and population densities are low; where the opposites of both conditions are realized polygamous tendencies arise. Vole mating systems are also sensitive to the
operational sex ratio In the evolutionary biology of sexual reproduction, operational sex ratio (OSR) is the ratio of sexually competing males that are ready to mate to sexually competing females that are ready to mate, or alternatively the local ratio of fertilizable fe ...
and tend toward monogamy when males and females are present in equal numbers. Where one sex is more numerous than the other,
polygamy Crimes Polygamy (from Late Greek (') "state of marriage to many spouses") is the practice of marrying multiple spouses. When a man is married to more than one wife at the same time, sociologists call this polygyny. When a woman is married ...
is more likely. However the most marked effect on mating system is population density and these effects can take place both inter and intra-specifically. Male voles are territorial and tend to include territories of several female voles when possible. Under these conditions polyandry exists and males offer little parental care. Males mark and aggressively defend their territories since females prefer males with the most recent marking in a given area. Voles prefer familiar mates through olfactory sensory exploitation. Monogamous voles prefer males who have yet to mate, while non-monogamous voles do not. Mate preference in voles develops through cohabitation in as little as 24 hours. This drives young male voles to show non-limiting preference toward female siblings. This is not inclusive to females' preference for males which may help to explain the absence of interbreeding indicators. Although females show little territoriality, under pair bonding conditions they tend to show aggression toward other female voles. This behavior is flexible as some ''
Microtus ''Microtus'' is a genus of voles found in North America, Europe and northern Asia. The genus name refers to the small ears of these animals. About 62 species are placed in the genus. They are stout rodents with short ears, legs and tails. They ea ...
'' females share dens during the winter months, perhaps to conserve heat and energy. Populations which are monogamous show relatively minor size differences between genders compared with those using polygamous systems. The grey-sided vole (''
Myodes rufocanus The grey red-backed vole or the grey-sided vole (''Myodes rufocanus'') is a species of vole. An adult grey red-backed vole weighs 20-50 grams. This species ranges across northern Eurasia, including northern China, the northern Korean Peni ...
'') exhibits male-biased dispersal as a means of avoiding incestuous matings. Among those matings that involve inbreeding, the number of weaned juveniles in litters is significantly fewer than that from noninbred litters, due to
inbreeding depression Inbreeding depression is the reduced biological fitness which has the potential to result from inbreeding (the breeding of related individuals). Biological fitness refers to an organism's ability to survive and perpetuate its genetic material. In ...
. Brandt's vole ('' Lasiopodomys brandtii'') lives in groups that mainly consist of close relatives. However, they show no sign of inbreeding. The mating system of these voles involves a type of
polygyny Polygyny (; from Neoclassical Greek πολυγυνία (); ) is the most common and accepted form of polygamy around the world, entailing the marriage of a man with several women. Incidence Polygyny is more widespread in Africa than in any o ...
for males and extra-group
polyandry Polyandry (; ) is a form of polygamy in which a woman takes two or more husbands at the same time. Polyandry is contrasted with polygyny, involving one male and two or more females. If a marriage involves a plural number of "husbands and wives ...
for females. This system increases the frequency of mating among distantly related individuals, and is achieved mainly by dispersal during the mating season. Such a strategy is likely an adaptation to avoid the inbreeding depression that would be caused by expression of deleterious recessive alleles if close relatives mated.


Empathy and consolation

A 2016 study into the behavior of voles, ''Microtus ochrogaster'' specifically, found that voles comfort each other when mistreated, spending more time grooming a mistreated vole. Voles that were not mistreated had levels of stress hormones that were similar to the voles that had been mistreated, suggesting that the voles were capable of empathizing with each other. This was further proven by blocking the vole's receptors for
oxytocin Oxytocin (Oxt or OT) is a peptide hormone and neuropeptide normally produced in the hypothalamus and released by the posterior pituitary. It plays a role in social bonding, reproduction, childbirth, and the period after childbirth. Oxytocin ...
, a hormone involved in empathy. When the
oxytocin receptor The oxytocin receptor, also known as OXTR, is a protein which functions as receptor for the hormone and neurotransmitter oxytocin. In humans, the oxytocin receptor is encoded by the ''OXTR'' gene which has been localized to human chromosome 3p25 ...
s were blocked this behavior stopped. This type of empathetic behavior has previously been thought to occur only in animals with advanced cognition such as humans, apes and elephants.


Vole clock

The vole clock is a method of dating archaeological strata using vole teeth.


Classification

* Order
Rodent Rodents (from Latin , 'to gnaw') are mammals of the order Rodentia (), which are characterized by a single pair of continuously growing incisors in each of the upper and lower jaws. About 40% of all mammal species are rodents. They are na ...
ia ** Superfamily
Muroidea The Muroidea are a large superfamily of rodents, including mice, rats, voles, hamsters, lemmings, gerbils, and many other relatives. Although the Muroidea originated in Eurasia, they occupy a vast variety of habitats on every continent excep ...
*** Family
Cricetidae The Cricetidae are a family of rodents in the large and complex superfamily Muroidea. It includes true hamsters, voles, lemmings, muskrats, and New World rats and mice. At almost 608 species, it is the second-largest family of mammals, and has m ...
**** Subfamily
Arvicolinae The Arvicolinae are a subfamily of rodents that includes the voles, lemmings, and muskrats. They are most closely related to the other subfamilies in the Cricetidae (comprising the hamsters and New World rats and mice). Some authorities place ...
''(in part)'' *****Tribe
Arvicolini Arvicolini is a tribe of voles in the subfamily Arvicolinae. A 2021 study found that '' Arvicola'' may not belong in this group, instead being sister to the tribe Lagurini. List of species Tribe Arvicolini *Genus '' Arvicola'' - water voles ** ...
******Genus '' Arvicola'' – water voles ******Genus '' Blanfordimys'' – Afghan vole and Bucharian vole ******Genus ''
Chionomys ''Chionomys'' is a genus of rodent in the family Cricetidae. It contains the following species: * Caucasian snow vole (''Chionomys gud'') * European snow vole (''Chionomys nivalis'') * Robert's snow vole Robert's snow vole (''Chionomys robe ...
'' – snow voles ******Genus '' Lasiopodomys'' ******Genus ''
Lemmiscus The sagebrush vole (''Lemmiscus curtatus'') is a tiny vole found in western North America. This is the only member of genus ''Lemmiscus''. They are somewhat similar in appearance to lemmings. They have chunky bodies with short legs and a very sh ...
'' – sagebrush vole ******Genus ''
Microtus ''Microtus'' is a genus of voles found in North America, Europe and northern Asia. The genus name refers to the small ears of these animals. About 62 species are placed in the genus. They are stout rodents with short ears, legs and tails. They ea ...
'' – voles ******Genus ''
Neodon ''Neodon'' is a genus of rodent in the family Cricetidae. Species within ''Neodon'' are classified as relics of the Pleistocene epoch because the occlusal patterns resemble the extinct '' Allophaiomys''. The genus ''Neodon'' contains the follow ...
'' – mountain voles ******Genus ''
Phaiomys Blyth's vole (''Phaiomys leucurus'') is a species of rodent in the family Cricetidae. It is the only species in the genus ''Phaiomys''. It is found in mountainous regions in northern India, Nepal and China. It is a burrowing rodent and lives in ...
'' ******Genus ''
Proedromys ''Proedromys'' is a genus of rodent in the family Cricetidae from China. It is part of the tribe Arvicolini within the subfamily Arvicolinae, which contains the voles, lemming A lemming is a small rodent, usually found in or near the Arctic in ...
'' – Duke of Bedford's vole ******Genus ''
Volemys ''Volemys'' is a small genus of rodents in the family Cricetidae. It contains the following species, both of which are endemic Endemism is the state of a species being found in a single defined geographic location, such as an island, state, ...
'' *****Tribe Ellobiusini – mole voles ******Genus ''
Ellobius ''Ellobius'' is a genus of rodents in the family Cricetidae. It is the only member of the tribe Ellobiusini. It contains two ('' E. lutescens'' and '' E. tancrei'') of the handful of examples of mammal species that have lost the Y chromosome. Th ...
'' – mole voles *****Tribe
Myodini The Myodini are a tribe of forest voles in the subfamily Arvicolinae. Species in this tribe are: *Tribe Myodini **Genus '' Alticola'' - voles from Central Asia ***Subgenus ''Alticola'' **** White-tailed mountain vole, ''A. albicauda'' **** Silve ...
******Genus ''
Alticola ''Alticola'' is a genus of rodent in the family Cricetidae. Species *Subgenus ''Alticola'' ** White-tailed mountain vole (''Alticola albicauda'') ** Silver mountain vole (''Alticola argentatus'') ** Gobi Altai mountain vole (''Alticola ba ...
'' – voles from
Central Asia Central Asia, also known as Middle Asia, is a subregion, region of Asia that stretches from the Caspian Sea in the west to western China and Mongolia in the east, and from Afghanistan and Iran in the south to Russia in the north. It includes t ...
******Genus ''
Caryomys ''Caryomys'' is a genus of rodent in the family Cricetidae. The genus contains the following species: * Ganzu vole (''Caryomys eva'') * Kolan vole The Kolan vole, Inez's red-backed vole or Inez's vole (''Caryomys inez'') is a species of rode ...
'' ******Genus ''
Eothenomys ''Eothenomys'' is a genus of rodent in the family Cricetidae. It contains the following species: * Kachin red-backed vole (''Eothenomys cachinus'') * Pratt's vole (''Eothenomys chinensis'') * Southwest China vole (''Eothenomys custos'') * Père D ...
'' – voles from
East Asia East Asia is the eastern region of Asia, which is defined in both geographical and ethno-cultural terms. The modern states of East Asia include China, Japan, Mongolia, North Korea, South Korea, and Taiwan. China, North Korea, South Korea and ...
******Genus ''
Hyperacrius ''Hyperacrius'' is a genus of rodent in the family Cricetidae. It contains the following species: * True's vole True's vole (''Hyperacrius fertilis'') is a species of rodent in the family Cricetidae. It is found in India and Pakistan P ...
'' – voles from
India India, officially the Republic of India (Hindi: ), is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by area, the second-most populous country, and the most populous democracy in the world. Bounded by the Indian Ocean on the so ...
(True's vole),
Afghanistan Afghanistan, officially the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan,; prs, امارت اسلامی افغانستان is a landlocked country located at the crossroads of Central Asia and South Asia. Referred to as the Heart of Asia, it is bordere ...
and
Pakistan Pakistan ( ur, ), officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan ( ur, , label=none), is a country in South Asia. It is the world's List of countries and dependencies by population, fifth-most populous country, with a population of almost 24 ...
(Murree's vole) ******Genus '' Myodes'' – red-backed voles *****Tribe
Phenacomyini Phenacomyini is a tribe of voles in the subfamily Arvicolinae. It contains five species in two genera, all of which are found in North America. Species in this tribe are: * Genus '' Arborimus'' - tree voles ** White-footed vole, ''A. albipes' ...
******Genus '' Arborimus'' – tree voles ******Genus '' Phenacomys'' – heather voles *****Tribe
Pliomyini The Balkan snow vole (''Dinaromys bogdanovi''), also known as Martino's snow vole, is the only member of the genus ''Dinaromys''. Eight subspecies of this vole have been recognized from southern parts of Europe. The genus name means "Dinaric mou ...
******Genus ''
Dinaromys The Balkan snow vole (''Dinaromys bogdanovi''), also known as Martino's snow vole, is the only member of the genus ''Dinaromys''. Eight subspecies of this vole have been recognized from southern parts of Europe. The genus name means "Dinaric mo ...
'' – voles from the
Dinaric Alps The Dinaric Alps (), also Dinarides, are a mountain range in Southern and Southcentral Europe, separating the continental Balkan Peninsula from the Adriatic Sea. They stretch from Italy in the northwest through Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herz ...


References


External links

{{EB1911 Poster, Vole
"Genetic Code for Monogamy"
National Geographic video on
YouTube YouTube is a global online video platform, online video sharing and social media, social media platform headquartered in San Bruno, California. It was launched on February 14, 2005, by Steve Chen, Chad Hurley, and Jawed Karim. It is owned by ...
* Mammal common names Articles containing video clips