HOME

TheInfoList



OR:

The Vehmic courts, ''Vehmgericht'', holy vehme, or simply Vehm, also spelt ''Feme'', ''Vehmegericht'', ''Fehmgericht'', are names given to a "proto-
vigilante Vigilantism () is the act of preventing, investigating and punishing perceived offenses and crimes without legal authority. A vigilante (from Spanish, Italian and Portuguese “vigilante”, which means "sentinel" or "watcher") is a person who ...
" tribunal system of
Westphalia Westphalia (; german: Westfalen ; nds, Westfalen ) is a region of northwestern Germany and one of the three historic parts of the state of North Rhine-Westphalia. It has an area of and 7.9 million inhabitants. The territory of the regio ...
in
Germany Germany,, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a country in Central Europe. It is the second most populous country in Europe after Russia, and the most populous member state of the European Union. Germany is situated betwee ...
active during the later
Middle Ages In the history of Europe, the Middle Ages or medieval period lasted approximately from the late 5th to the late 15th centuries, similar to the post-classical period of global history. It began with the fall of the Western Roman Empire ...
, based on a fraternal organisation of lay judges called "free judges" (german: Freischöffen or french: francs-juges). The original seat of the courts was in
Dortmund Dortmund (; Westphalian nds, Düörpm ; la, Tremonia) is the third-largest city in North Rhine-Westphalia after Cologne and Düsseldorf, and the eighth-largest city of Germany, with a population of 588,250 inhabitants as of 2021. It is the la ...
. Proceedings were sometimes secret, leading to the alternative titles of "secret courts" (german: heimliches Gericht), "silent courts" (german: Stillgericht), or "forbidden courts" (german: verbotene Gerichte). After the execution of a death sentence, the corpse could be hanged on a tree to advertise the fact and deter others. The peak of activity of these courts was during the 14th to 15th centuries, with lesser activity attested for the 13th and 16th centuries, and scattered evidence establishing their continued existence during the 17th and 18th centuries. They were finally abolished by order of
Jérôme Bonaparte Jérôme-Napoléon Bonaparte (born Girolamo Buonaparte; 15 November 1784 – 24 June 1860) was the youngest brother of Napoleon I and reigned as Jerome Napoleon I (formally Hieronymus Napoleon in German), King of Westphalia, between 1807 and 18 ...
, king of Westphalia, in 1811. The Vehmic courts were the regional courts of Westphalia which, in turn, were based on the county courts of
Franconia Franconia (german: Franken, ; Franconian dialect: ''Franggn'' ; bar, Frankn) is a region of Germany, characterised by its culture and Franconian dialect (German: ''Fränkisch''). The three administrative regions of Lower, Middle and Upper ...
. They received their jurisdiction from the
Holy Roman Emperor The Holy Roman Emperor, originally and officially the Emperor of the Romans ( la, Imperator Romanorum, german: Kaiser der Römer) during the Middle Ages, and also known as the Roman-German Emperor since the early modern period ( la, Imperat ...
, from whom they also received the capacity to pronounce capital punishment (german: Blutgericht) which they exercised in his name. Everywhere else the power of life and death, originally reserved to the Emperor alone, had been usurped by the territorial nobles; only in Westphalia, called "the Red Earth" because here the imperial ''Blutbann'' (jurisdiction over life and death) was still valid, were capital sentences passed and executed by the Vehmic courts in the Emperor's name alone.


Etymology

The term's origin is uncertain, but seems to enter Middle High German from
Middle Low German Middle Low German or Middle Saxon (autonym: ''Sassisch'', i.e. " Saxon", Standard High German: ', Modern Dutch: ') is a developmental stage of Low German. It developed from the Old Saxon language in the Middle Ages and has been documented i ...
. The word ''vëme'' first appears in the
Middle High German Middle High German (MHG; german: Mittelhochdeutsch (Mhd.)) is the term for the form of German spoken in the High Middle Ages. It is conventionally dated between 1050 and 1350, developing from Old High German and into Early New High German. Hig ...
literature of the 13th century as a noun with the meaning of "punishment". A document dated to 1251 has the reference ''illud occultum judicium, quod vulgariter vehma seu vridinch appellari consuevit.'' ("It is hidden justice, that by common fashion is habitually referred to as ''vehma'' or ''vridinch''.") The general meaning of "punishment" is unrelated to the special courts of Westphalia which were thus originally just named "courts of punishment". But as the word entered the Southern German dialects via Saxony and Westphalia, the word's meaning in Early Modern German became attached to the activities of these courts specifically.
Jacob Grimm Jacob Ludwig Karl Grimm (4 January 1785 – 20 September 1863), also known as Ludwig Karl, was a German author, linguist, philologist, jurist, and folklorist. He is known as the discoverer of Grimm's law of linguistics, the co-author of t ...
thought that the word is identical in origin to a homophonous word for the raising of pigs on forest pastures ( Hutewald), just as the more familiar German ''Zucht'' can mean both breeding and discipline. Grimm considers the spelling with ''h'' unetymological in spite of its early occurrence in some 13th century documents, and hypothesizes a "lost root" "''fëmen''", connecting with Old Norse ''fimr'' and conjecturing a Gothic "''fiman, fam, fêmun?''". During 18th to 19th century Romanticism, there were various misguided attempts to explain the obscure term, or to elevate it to the status of a remnant of
pagan Paganism (from classical Latin ''pāgānus'' "rural", "rustic", later "civilian") is a term first used in the fourth century by early Christians for people in the Roman Empire who practiced polytheism, or ethnic religions other than Judaism. I ...
antiquity, scoffed at by Grimm's entry in his ''
Deutsches Wörterbuch The ''Deutsches Wörterbuch'' (; "The German Dictionary"), abbreviated ''DWB'', is the largest and most comprehensive dictionary of the German language in existence.James Skene James Skene of Rubislaw (1775–1864) was a Scottish lawyer and amateur artist, best known as a friend of Sir Walter Scott. Life The second son of George Skene (1736–1776) of Rubislaw, Aberdeen and his wife Jane (Jean) Moir of Stoneywood, ...
in 1824 derives the word from ''Baumgericht'' (Lit. "Tree law"), supposedly the remnant of a pagan "forest law" of the
Wild hunt The Wild Hunt is a folklore motif (Motif E501 in Stith Thompson's Motif-Index of Folk-Literature) that occurs in the folklore of various northern European cultures. Wild Hunts typically involve a chase led by a mythological figure escorted by ...
and pagan secret societies.


Origin

The Westphalian Vehmic courts developed from the High Medieval "free courts" ('' Freigerichte''), which had jurisdiction within a "free county" (german: Freigrafschaft). As a result of the 14th century imperial reform of the
Holy Roman Empire The Holy Roman Empire was a political entity in Western, Central, and Southern Europe that developed during the Early Middle Ages and continued until its dissolution in 1806 during the Napoleonic Wars. From the accession of Otto I in 962 unt ...
(
Golden Bull of 1356 The Golden Bull of 1356 (, , , , ) was a decree issued by the Imperial Diet at Nuremberg and Metz ( Diet of Metz, 1356/57) headed by the Emperor Charles IV which fixed, for a period of more than four hundred years, important aspects of the con ...
), the Landgraviates lost much of their power, and the ''Freigerichte'' disappeared, with the exception of Westphalia, where they retained their authority and transformed into the Vehmic court. The seat of the Vehmic court (german: Freistuhl) was at first
Dortmund Dortmund (; Westphalian nds, Düörpm ; la, Tremonia) is the third-largest city in North Rhine-Westphalia after Cologne and Düsseldorf, and the eighth-largest city of Germany, with a population of 588,250 inhabitants as of 2021. It is the la ...
, in a square between two linden trees, one of which was known as the '' Femelinde''. With the growing influence of
Cologne Cologne ( ; german: Köln ; ksh, Kölle ) is the largest city of the German western state of North Rhine-Westphalia (NRW) and the fourth-most populous city of Germany with 1.1 million inhabitants in the city proper and 3.6 millio ...
during the 15th century, the seat was moved to
Arnsberg Arnsberg (; wep, Arensperg) is a town in the Hochsauerland county, in the German state of North Rhine-Westphalia. It is the location of the Regierungsbezirk Arnsberg administration and one of the three local administration offices of the Hochs ...
in 1437.


Membership and procedure

The sessions were often held in secret, whence the names of "secret court" (german: heimliches Gericht), "silent court" (german: Stillgericht), etc. Attendance of secret sessions was forbidden to the uninitiated, on pain of death, which led to the designation "forbidden courts" (german: verbotene Gerichte). A chairman (german: Stuhlherr) presided over the court, and lay judges (german: Freischöffen) passed judgment. The court also constituted a Holy Order.McCall, Andrew ''The Medieval Underworld'' Sutton Publishing (2004) p110 Any free man "of pure bred German stock" and of good character could become a judge. The new candidate was given secret information and identification symbols. The "knowing one" (german: Wissende) had to keep his knowledge secret, even from his closest family ("vor Weib und Kind, vor Sand und Wind"). Lay judges had to give formal warnings to known troublemakers, issue warrants, and take part in executions. The organization of the ''Fehme'' was elaborate. The centre of each jurisdiction was referred to as a "free seat" (german: Freistuhl), and its head or chairman (german: Stuhlherr) was often a secular or spiritual prince, sometimes a civic community, the
archbishop of Cologne The Archbishop of Cologne is an archbishop governing the Archdiocese of Cologne of the Catholic Church in western North Rhine-Westphalia and is also a historical state in the Rhine holding the birthplace of Beethoven and northern Rhineland-Palat ...
being supreme over all (german: Oberststuhlherren). The actual president of the court was the "free count" (german: Freigraf), chosen for life by the ''Stuhlherr'' from among the ''Freischöffen'', who formed the great body of the initiated. Of these the lowest rank were the ''Fronboten'' or ''Freifronen'', charged with the maintenance of order in the courts and the duty of carrying out the commands of the ''Freigraf''. The immense development of the ''Fehme'' is explained by the privileges of the ''Freischöffen''; for they were subject to no jurisdiction but those of the Westphalian courts: whether as accused or accuser they had access to the secret sessions, and they shared in the discussions of the general chapter as to the policy of the society. At their initiation these swore to support the ''Fehme'' with all their powers, to guard its secrets, and to bring before its tribunal anything within its competence that they might discover. They were then initiated into the secret signs by which members recognized each other, and were presented with a rope and with a knife on which were engraved the mystic letters S.S.G.G., supposed to mean ''Stein, Strick, Gras, grün'' (stone, rope, grass, green). The ''Freistuhl'' was the place of session, and was usually a hillock, or some other well-known and accessible spot. The ''Freigraf'' and the ''Schöffen'' (judges) occupied the bench, before which a table, with a sword and rope upon it, was placed. The court was held by day and, unless the session was declared secret, all freemen, whether initiated or not, were admitted. The accusation was in the old German form; but only a ''Freischöffe'' could act as accuser. If the offence came under the competence of the court, meaning it was punishable by death, a summons to the accused was issued under the seal of the ''Freigraf''. This was not usually served on him personally, but was nailed to his door, or to some convenient place where he was certain to pass. Six weeks and three days' grace were allowed, according to the old Saxon law, and the summons was thrice repeated. If the accused appeared, the accuser stated the case, and the investigation proceeded by the examination of witnesses as in an ordinary court of law. The judgment was put into execution on the spot if that was possible. The secret court, from whose procedure the whole institution has acquired its evil reputation, was closed to all but the initiated, although these were so numerous as to secure quasi-publicity; any one not a member on being discovered was instantly put to death, and the members present were bound under the same penalty not to disclose what took place. Crimes of a serious nature, and especially those that were deemed unfit for ordinary judicial investigation, such as heresy and witchcraft, fell within its jurisdiction, as also did appeals by persons condemned in the open courts, and likewise the cases before those tribunals in which the accused had not appeared. The accused, if a member, could clear himself by his own oath, unless he had revealed the secrets of the ''Fehme''. If he were one of the uninitiated it was necessary for him to bring forward witnesses to his innocence from among the initiated, whose number varied according to the number on the side of the accuser, but twenty-one in favour of innocence necessarily secured an acquittal. The only punishment which the secret court could inflict was death. If the accused appeared, the sentence was carried into execution at once; if he did not appear, it was quickly made known to the whole body, and the ''Freischöffe'' who was the first to meet the condemned was bound to put him to death. This was usually done by hanging, the nearest tree serving for gallows. A knife with the mystic letters was left beside the corpse to show that the deed was not a murder. It has been claimed that, in some cases, the condemned would be set free, given several hours' head start and then hunted down and put to death. So fearsome was the reputation of the ''Fehme'' and its reach that many thus released committed suicide rather than prolonging the inevitable. This practice could have been a holdover from the ancient Germanic legal concept of outlawry (''Acht''). Legend and romance have combined to exaggerate the sinister reputation of the Fehmic courts; but modern historical research has largely discounted this, proving that they never employed torture, that their sittings were only sometimes secret, and that their meeting-places were always well known.


The spread of the Vehmic courts

The system, though ancient, came into wider use only after the division of the
duchy of Saxony The Duchy of Saxony ( nds, Hartogdom Sassen, german: Herzogtum Sachsen) was originally the area settled by the Saxons in the late Early Middle Ages, when they were subdued by Charlemagne during the Saxon Wars from 772 and incorporated into the C ...
after the fall of
Henry the Lion Henry the Lion (german: Heinrich der Löwe; 1129/1131 – 6 August 1195) was a member of the Welf dynasty who ruled as the duke of Saxony and Bavaria from 1142 and 1156, respectively, until 1180. Henry was one of the most powerful German p ...
, when the archbishop of Cologne
Engelbert II of Berg Count Engelbert II of Berg, also known as Saint Engelbert, Engelbert of Cologne, Engelbert I, Archbishop of Cologne or Engelbert I of Berg, Archbishop of Cologne (1185 or 1186, Schloss Burg – 7 November 1225, Gevelsberg) was archbishop of C ...
, (also duke of Westphalia from 1180) placed himself at the head of the Fehme as representative of the emperor. The organization then spread rapidly. Every free man born in lawful wedlock and not excommunicated nor an outlaw was eligible for membership. Princes and nobles were initiated; and in 1429 even the Emperor Sigismund himself became "a true and proper of the Holy Roman Empire." There is a manuscript in the Town Hall of the Westphalian town of Soest, which consists of an original Vehmic Court Regulation document, along with illustrations. By the middle of the 14th century these (Latin ), sworn associates of the Fehme, were scattered in thousands throughout the length and breadth of Germany, known to each other by secret signs and pass-words, and all of them pledged to serve the summons of the secret courts and to execute their judgment.


Decline and dissolution of the Courts

That an organization of this character should have outlived its usefulness and ushered in intolerable abuses, such as
corruption Corruption is a form of dishonesty or a criminal offense which is undertaken by a person or an organization which is entrusted in a position of authority, in order to acquire illicit benefits or abuse power for one's personal gain. Corruption m ...
was inevitable; from the mid-fifteenth century protests were raised against the enormities of the court. With the growing power of the territorial sovereigns and the gradual improvement of the ordinary process of justice, the functions of the Fehmic courts were superseded. By the action of the Emperor Maximilian and of other German princes they were, in the 16th century, once more restricted to Westphalia, and here, too, they were brought under the jurisdiction of the ordinary courts, and finally confined to mere police duties. With these functions, however, but with the old forms long since robbed of their impressiveness, they survived into the 19th century. They were finally abolished by order of
Jérôme Bonaparte Jérôme-Napoléon Bonaparte (born Girolamo Buonaparte; 15 November 1784 – 24 June 1860) was the youngest brother of Napoleon I and reigned as Jerome Napoleon I (formally Hieronymus Napoleon in German), King of Westphalia, between 1807 and 18 ...
, king of Westphalia, in 1811. The last Freigraf died in 1835.


Modern use of the term

Following the abandonment of the Vehmic courts, the term acquired a connotation of
mob rule Mob rule or ochlocracy ( el, ὀχλοκρατία, translit=okhlokratía; la, ochlocratia) is the rule of government by a mob or mass of people and the intimidation of legitimate authorities. Insofar as it represents a pejorative for majo ...
and
lynching Lynching is an extrajudicial killing by a group. It is most often used to characterize informal public executions by a mob in order to punish an alleged transgressor, punish a convicted transgressor, or intimidate people. It can also be an ex ...
. In Modern German, the spelling of ''Feme'' is most common. Other variant forms are: Fehme, Feime, Veme. The verb ''verfemen'' is in current use and means "to ostracise", i.e. by public opinion rather than formal legal proceeding. A noun derived from this is ''Verfemter'' "outlaw, ostracised person". In an 1856 lecture, philosopher
Karl Marx Karl Heinrich Marx (; 5 May 1818 – 14 March 1883) was a German philosopher, economist, historian, sociologist, political theorist, journalist, critic of political economy, and socialist revolutionary. His best-known titles are the 1848 ...
used the Vehmic courts as a metaphor to describe his predictions of the working-class revolution that would sweep Europe. Within the politically heated turmoil of the early German
Weimar Republic The Weimar Republic (german: link=no, Weimarer Republik ), officially named the German Reich, was the government of Germany from 1918 to 1933, during which it was a Constitutional republic, constitutional federal republic for the first time in ...
after World War I, the media frequently used the term ''Fememord'' to refer to right-wing political homicides, e.g. the murder of Jewish politicians such as Kurt Eisner (1919) or Walther Rathenau (1922) and other politicians including Matthias Erzberger (1921) by right-wing groups such as Organisation Consul. In 1926, the 27th ''Reichstag'' commission officially differentiated the contemporarily common ''Fememorde'' from political assassination in that assassination was by definition exerted upon open political opponents, whereas a ''Fememord'' was a form of lethal vengeance committed upon former or current members of an organization that they had become a traitor to. This definition is also found in the common pseudo-archaic, alliterating right-wing phrase, ''"Verräter verfallen der Feme!"'' ("Traitors shall be ostracized!", i. e. killed), as it was often quoted throughout the 1920s in mass media reports regarding violent acts of vengeance among the German Right.Hofmann, Ulrike C. (2000)
''"Verräter verfallen der Feme!" Fememorde in Bayern in den zwanziger Jahren''
Cologne: Böhlau


The Vehmic courts in fiction

Vehmic courts play a key role in the novel ''
Anne of Geierstein ''Anne of Geierstein, or The Maiden of the Mist'' (1829) is one of the Waverley novels by Sir Walter Scott. It is set in Central Europe, mainly in Switzerland, shortly after the Yorkist victory at the Battle of Tewkesbury (1471). It covers t ...
or, The Maiden of the Mist'' by
Sir Walter Scott Sir Walter Scott, 1st Baronet (15 August 1771 – 21 September 1832), was a Scottish novelist, poet, playwright and historian. Many of his works remain classics of European and Scottish literature, notably the novels '' Ivanhoe'', '' Rob Roy ...
in which Archibald von Hagenbach, the Duke of Burgundy's governor at Brisach (Switzerland), is condemned and executed by the Vehmgericht. Scott drew his inspiration from
Goethe Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (28 August 1749 – 22 March 1832) was a German poet, playwright, novelist, scientist, statesman, theatre director, and critic. His works include plays, poetry, literature, and aesthetic criticism, as well as tr ...
's play '' Goetz von Berlichingen'' which he had translated, incorrectly.
Hector Berlioz In Greek mythology, Hector (; grc, Ἕκτωρ, Hektōr, label=none, ) is a character in Homer's Iliad. He was a Trojan prince and the greatest warrior for Troy during the Trojan War. Hector led the Trojans and their allies in the defense o ...
's first opera, ''
Les francs-juges ''Les francs-juges'' (translated as "The Free Judges" or "The Judges of the Secret Court") is the title of an unfinished opera by the French composer Hector Berlioz written to a libretto by his friend Humbert Ferrand in 1826. Berlioz abandoned the ...
'', was inspired by Scott's presentation of the Vehmic Courts. Though the work was never staged the overture survives as a concert piece. In the very first concert of Berlioz's work, on 26 May 1828, the overture was performed along with the Opus 1 '' Waverley'' overture, a further indication of Berlioz's debt to Scott's fiction. The ''Les francs-juges'' overture later became the signature tune for '' Face to Face'', the early series of British television interviews presented by John Freeman. In
William Makepeace Thackeray William Makepeace Thackeray (; 18 July 1811 – 24 December 1863) was a British novelist, author and illustrator. He is known for his satirical works, particularly his 1848 novel ''Vanity Fair'', a panoramic portrait of British society, and t ...
's novel ''
Vanity Fair Vanity Fair may refer to: Arts, entertainment and media Literature * Vanity Fair, a location in '' The Pilgrim's Progress'' (1678), by John Bunyan * ''Vanity Fair'' (novel), 1848, by William Makepeace Thackeray * ''Vanity Fair'' (magazines), the ...
'' "Was Rebecca guilty or not?" the Vehmgericht of the servants' hall had pronounced against her. A character in the Dorothy L. Sayers novel '' Murder Must Advertise'' appears at a fancy-dress party as a member of the Vehmgericht, which allows him to wear a hooded costume to disguise his identity. People in Femgericht costumes also appear in
Arthur Schnitzler Arthur Schnitzler (15 May 1862 – 21 October 1931) was an Austrian author and dramatist. Biography Arthur Schnitzler was born at Praterstrasse 16, Leopoldstadt, Vienna, capital of the Austrian Empire (as of 1867, part of the dual monarchy ...
's 1926 novella '' Dream Story''. In ''
Fritz Lang Friedrich Christian Anton Lang (; December 5, 1890 – August 2, 1976), known as Fritz Lang, was an Austrian film director, screenwriter, and producer who worked in Germany and later the United States.Obituary '' Variety'', August 4, 1976, p. ...
s '' M'', the local criminals of an unnamed city (probably Berlin) capture a child murderer and hold a vigilante court. In '' The Illuminatus! Trilogy'', the Vehmic courts are mentioned as being connected to
Nazi Nazism ( ; german: Nazismus), the common name in English for National Socialism (german: Nationalsozialismus, ), is the far-right totalitarian political ideology and practices associated with Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party (NSDAP) in ...
Werwolf ''Werwolf'' (, German for " werewolf") was a Nazi plan which began development in 1944, to create a resistance force which would operate behind enemy lines as the Allies advanced through Germany, in parallel with the '' Wehrmacht'' fighting ...
commandos as well as the
Illuminati The Illuminati (; plural of Latin ''illuminatus'', 'enlightened') is a name given to several groups, both real and fictitious. Historically, the name usually refers to the Bavarian Illuminati, an Enlightenment-era secret society founded on ...
. In '' A Study in Scarlet'', a
Sherlock Holmes Sherlock Holmes () is a fictional detective created by British author Arthur Conan Doyle. Referring to himself as a " consulting detective" in the stories, Holmes is known for his proficiency with observation, deduction, forensic science and ...
novel by
Arthur Conan Doyle Sir Arthur Ignatius Conan Doyle (22 May 1859 – 7 July 1930) was a British writer and physician. He created the character Sherlock Holmes in 1887 for ''A Study in Scarlet'', the first of four novels and fifty-six short stories about Ho ...
, a newspaper article mentions the Vehmgericht, stating that the features of a recent death are similar to the organization's killings. The Vehmgericht also appear as antagonists in ''The Strong Arm'', an 1899 novel set in the Holy Roman Empire by British-Canadian author Robert Barr. Geoff Taylor's 1966 novel, ''Court Of Honor'', features the Fehme being revived by a German officer and
Martin Bormann Martin Ludwig Bormann (17 June 1900 – 2 May 1945) was a German Nazi Party official and head of the Nazi Party Chancellery. He gained immense power by using his position as Adolf Hitler's private secretary to control the flow of information ...
in the dying days of the Third Reich. Season 3, episode 12 of ''The Blacklist'', titled ''The Vehm'' is based on a group of vigilantes using medieval torture methods to kill paedophiles and money launderers. Jack Mayer's 2015 historical fiction, ''Before the Court of Heaven'', depicts the Fehme, and 'Fehme justice' as part of the extreme right-wing conspiracy to bring down Germany's Weimar democracy.


See also

*
Feme murders The Feme ('fā-mə) murders (German: ) were a series of politically motivated murders in Weimar Germany from 1919 to 1923 that were committed by elements of the German far right against political opponents they considered treasonous. The practice ...


References

* This work in turn cites: **P. Wigand, ''Das Femgericht Westfalens'' (Hamm, 1825, 2nd ed., Halle, 1893) **L. Tross, ''Sammlung merkwurdiger Urkunden für die Geschichte der Femgerichte'' (Hanover, 1826) **F. P. Usener, ''Die frei- und heimlichen Gerichte Westfalens'' (Frankfort, 1832) **K. G. von Wächter, ''Beiträge zur deutschen Geschichte, insbesondere des deutschen Strafrechts'' (Tübingen, 1845) **O. Wächter, ''Femgerichte und Hexenprozesse in Deutschland'' (Stuttgart, 1882) **T. Lindner, ''Die Feme'' (Munster and Paderborn, 1888) **F. Thudichum, ''Femgericht und Inquisition'' (Giessen, 1889) **T. Lindner, ''Der angebliche Ursprung der Femgerichte aus der Inquisition'' (Paderborn, 1890) This source combats T. Linder's theory concerning the origin of the Fehme. **K.M. Langmaier: ''Wo finde ich mein Recht? Ulrich Erhart gegen Kloster, Herzog und Reichsstadt: der „arme Mann" in den Mühlen der Justiz. Ein bayerischer Beitrag zur westfälischen Femegerichtsbarkeit im 15. Jahrhundert.'' In: Westfälische Zeitschrift 170, 2020 37–68 **Dahlmann and Waitz, ''Quellenkunde'' (Leipzig, 1906), p. 401; also the supplementary vol. (1907), p. 78. Lists of works on individual aspects. * Daraul, Arkon, ''A History of Secret Societies'', London, Tandem, 1965. Has a chapter on the Holy Vehm; among other things, it describes the practice of "Free As a Bird". *''This article (or an earlier version) contains text from the
public domain The public domain (PD) consists of all the creative work to which no exclusive intellectual property rights apply. Those rights may have expired, been forfeited, expressly waived, or may be inapplicable. Because those rights have expired ...
'' Brewer's Reader's Handbook'', published in 1898.''


Notes


External links

* {{DEFAULTSORT:Vehmic Court Legal history of the Holy Roman Empire Secret societies in Germany Abuse of the legal system 1811 disestablishments in Germany