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A virago is a woman who demonstrates abundant masculine virtues. The word comes from the Latin word ''virāgō'' (
genitive
In grammar, the genitive case (abbreviated ) is the grammatical case that marks a word, usually a noun, as modifying another word, also usually a noun—thus indicating an attributive relationship of one noun to the other noun. A genitive can al ...
virāginis) meaning vigorous' from ''vir'' meaning "man" or "man-like" (cf.
virile
Virility (from the Latin ''virilitas'', manhood or virility, derived from Latin ''vir'', man) refers to any of a wide range of masculinity, masculine characteristics viewed positively. Virile means "marked by strength or force". Virility is co ...
and
virtue
Virtue ( la, virtus) is moral excellence. A virtue is a trait or quality that is deemed to be morally good and thus is valued as a foundation of principle and good moral being. In other words, it is a behavior that shows high moral standard ...
) to which the suffix ''-āgō '' is added, a suffix that creates a new noun of the
third declension
{{No footnotes, date=February 2021
The third declension is a category of nouns in Latin and Greek with broadly similar case formation — diverse stems, but similar endings. Sanskrit also has a corresponding class (although not commonly termed ...
with feminine
grammatical gender
In linguistics, grammatical gender system is a specific form of noun class system, where nouns are assigned with gender categories that are often not related to their real-world qualities. In languages with grammatical gender, most or all nouns ...
. Historically, this was often positive and reflected heroism and exemplary qualities of masculinity. However, it could also be pejorative, indicating a woman who is masculine to the exclusion of traditional feminine virtues.
Modern use of the word ''virago'' generally takes the disparaging sense. Thus ''virago'' joined
pejorative
A pejorative or slur is a word or grammatical form expressing a negative or a disrespectful connotation, a low opinion, or a lack of respect toward someone or something. It is also used to express criticism, hostility, or disregard. Sometimes, a ...
s such as ''
termagant
In the Middle Ages, Termagant or Tervagant was the name given to a god which European Christians believed Muslims worshipped.
The word is also used in modern English to mean a violent, overbearing, turbulent, brawling, quarrelsome woman; a virago ...
'',
''mannish'', ''amazonian'' and ''
shrew
Shrews (family Soricidae) are small mole-like mammals classified in the order Eulipotyphla. True shrews are not to be confused with treeshrews, otter shrews, elephant shrews, West Indies shrews, or marsupial shrews, which belong to different fa ...
'' to describe women who acted aggressively or like men. The word ''virago'' has almost always had an association with cultural
gender transgression. There are recorded instances of viragos (such as
Joan of Arc
Joan of Arc (french: link=yes, Jeanne d'Arc, translit= an daʁk} ; 1412 – 30 May 1431) is a patron saint of France, honored as a defender of the French nation for her role in the siege of Orléans and her insistence on the coronati ...
) fighting battles, wearing men's clothing, or receiving the
tonsure
Tonsure () is the practice of cutting or shaving some or all of the hair on the scalp as a sign of religious devotion or humility. The term originates from the Latin word ' (meaning "clipping" or "shearing") and referred to a specific practice in ...
.
History
Historically, the concept of a virago reaches back into antiquity where
Hellenistic philosophy
Hellenistic philosophy is a time-frame for Western philosophy and Ancient Greek philosophy corresponding to the Hellenistic period. It is purely external and encompasses disparate intellectual content. There is no single philosophical school or cu ...
asserted that elite and exceptionally heroic men had ''
virtus
''Virtus'' () was a specific virtue in Ancient Rome. It carries connotations of valor, manliness, excellence, courage, character, and worth, perceived as masculine strengths (from Latin ''vir'', "man"). It was thus a frequently stated virtue o ...
'' ( el, ἀνδρεία, andreia). ''Virtus'' (once again linked to ''vir'', the brave man abiding by society's highest values and ethics as opposed to ''homo'', human being) defined the traits of excellence for a man in ancient Rome (and Greece), including valor and heroism, but also morality and physical strength. Women and non-elite or unheroic men (slaves, servants, craftsmen, merchants) were considered a lesser category, and believed to be less excellent in
Roman morality. A woman, however, if exceptional enough could earn the title ''virago''. In doing so, she surpassed the expectations for what was believed possible for her
gender
Gender is the range of characteristics pertaining to femininity and masculinity and differentiating between them. Depending on the context, this may include sex-based social structures (i.e. gender roles) and gender identity. Most cultures u ...
, and embodied masculine-like aggression and/or excellence. Virago, then, was a title of respect and admiration. In
Christianity
Christianity is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth. It is the world's largest and most widespread religion with roughly 2.38 billion followers representing one-third of the global pop ...
, a
nun
A nun is a woman who vows to dedicate her life to religious service, typically living under vows of poverty, chastity, and obedience in the enclosure of a monastery or convent.''The Oxford English Dictionary'', vol. X, page 599. The term is o ...
or holy woman who had become equal in divinity to male
monks
A monk (, from el, μοναχός, ''monachos'', "single, solitary" via Latin ) is a person who practices religious asceticism by monastic living, either alone or with any number of other monks. A monk may be a person who decides to dedicat ...
through practiced
celibacy
Celibacy (from Latin ''caelibatus'') is the state of voluntarily being unmarried, sexually abstinent, or both, usually for religious reasons. It is often in association with the role of a religious official or devotee. In its narrow sense, the ...
, exemplary religious practice and devotion, and intact
virginity
Virginity is the state of a person who has never engaged in sexual intercourse. The term ''virgin'' originally only referred to sexually inexperienced women, but has evolved to encompass a range of definitions, as found in traditional, modern ...
, was considered to have surpassed the limitations of her femaleness and was called ''virago''. Latin writer
Firmicus Maternus
__NOTOC__
Julius Firmicus Maternus was a Roman Latin writer and astrologer, who received a pagan classical education that made him conversant with Greek; he lived in the reign of Constantine I (306 to 337 AD) and his successors. His triple career m ...
in the 4th century CE describes virago as women who take on a man's character and desire intercourse with women like men.
Standard modern dictionaries define ''virago'' as either, in order of definition, (1) a "loud overbearing woman"; a "shrew". or (2) a woman of "great stature, strength, and courage"
Thus virago continues to be associated with both the naming of a woman who has either (1) a domineering, abrasive and spiteful manner, or (2) has risen above cultural and
gender stereotypes
A gender role, also known as a sex role, is a social role encompassing a range of behaviors and attitudes that are generally considered acceptable, appropriate, or desirable for a person based on that person's sex. Gender roles are usually cente ...
to embody a
virile
Virility (from the Latin ''virilitas'', manhood or virility, derived from Latin ''vir'', man) refers to any of a wide range of masculinity, masculine characteristics viewed positively. Virile means "marked by strength or force". Virility is co ...
heroism; for example, the
British Royal Navy
The Royal Navy (RN) is the United Kingdom's naval warfare force. Although warships were used by English and Scottish kings from the early medieval period, the first major maritime engagements were fought in the Hundred Years' War against F ...
christened at least four warships ''
Virago
A virago is a woman who demonstrates abundant masculine virtues. The word comes from the Latin word ''virāgō'' ( genitive virāginis) meaning vigorous' from ''vir'' meaning "man" or "man-like" (cf. virile and virtue) to which the suffix ''-ā ...
''.
Vulgate Bible
The
Vulgate
The Vulgate (; also called (Bible in common tongue), ) is a late-4th-century Latin translation of the Bible.
The Vulgate is largely the work of Jerome who, in 382, had been commissioned by Pope Damasus I to revise the Gospels u ...
Bible, translated by
Jerome
Jerome (; la, Eusebius Sophronius Hieronymus; grc-gre, Εὐσέβιος Σωφρόνιος Ἱερώνυμος; – 30 September 420), also known as Jerome of Stridon, was a Christian presbyter, priest, Confessor of the Faith, confessor, th ...
and others in the 4th century C.E., was an early Latin translation of the Hebrew Bible
Old Testament
The Old Testament (often abbreviated OT) is the first division of the Christian biblical canon, which is based primarily upon the 24 books of the Hebrew Bible or Tanakh, a collection of ancient religious Hebrew writings by the Israelites. The ...
. In Genesis 2:23, Jerome uses the words ''Vir'' for man and ''Virago'' for "woman" attempting to reproduce a pun on "male" and "female" (''ish'' and ''ishah'') that existed in the Hebrew text.
[Helen Kraus. ''Gender Issues in Ancient and Reformation Translations of Genesis 1-4.'' Oxford University Press, USA (December 17, 2011). Page 182. ]
The Vulgate reads:
''Dixitque Adam hoc nunc os ex ossibus meis et caro de carne mea haec vocabitur virago quoniam de viro sumpta est.''
"And Adam said: This now is bone of my bones, and flesh of my flesh; she shall be called woman, because she was taken out of man."
The Middle English poem ''
Cursor Mundi
The ''Cursor Mundi'' (or ‘Over-runner of the World’) is an early 14th-century religious poem written in Northumbrian Middle English that presents an extensive retelling of the history of Christianity from the creation to the doomsday.Morris, R ...
'' retains the Latin name for the woman in its otherwise Middle English account of the creation:
''Quen sco was broght be-for adam, Virago he gaf her to nam; þar for hight sco virago, ffor maked of the man was sco.'' (lines 631–34)
"When she was brought before Adam, Virago was the name he gave to her; Therefore she is called Virago, For she was made out of the man."
See also
*
Amazons
In Greek mythology, the Amazons (Ancient Greek: Ἀμαζόνες ''Amazónes'', singular Ἀμαζών ''Amazōn'', via Latin ''Amāzon, -ŏnis'') are portrayed in a number of ancient epic poems and legends, such as the Labours of Hercules, ...
*
Shield-maiden
A shield-maiden ( non, skjaldmær ) was a female warrior from Scandinavian folklore and mythology.
Shield-maidens are often mentioned in sagas such as ''Hervarar saga ok Heiðreks'' and in ''Gesta Danorum''. They also appear in stories of other ...
*
Tomboy
A tomboy is a term for a girl or a young woman with masculine qualities. It can include wearing androgynous or unfeminine clothing and actively engage in physical sports or other activities and behaviors usually associated with boys or men. W ...
*
Woman warrior
References
{{Reflist
Bibliography
*Ernst Breisach, ''
Caterina Sforza
Caterina Sforza (1463 – 28 May 1509) was an Italian noblewoman, the Countess of Forlì and Lady of Imola, firstly with her husband Girolamo Riario, and after his death as a regent of her son Ottaviano. Caterina was a noblewoman who lived a li ...
; A Renaissance virago'', Chicago
sw. University Press 1967
*Elizabeth D. Carney,"
Olympias
Olympias ( grc-gre, Ὀλυμπιάς; c. 375–316 BC) was a Greek princess of the Molossians, and the eldest daughter of king Neoptolemus I of Epirus, the sister of Alexander I of Epirus, the fourth wife of Philip II, the king of Macedonia a ...
and the Image of the Virago" in: Phoenix, Vol. 47, No. 1 (Spring, 1993), pp. 29–55
*Morris, Richard. ''
Cursor Mundi
The ''Cursor Mundi'' (or ‘Over-runner of the World’) is an early 14th-century religious poem written in Northumbrian Middle English that presents an extensive retelling of the history of Christianity from the creation to the doomsday.Morris, R ...
: A Northumbrian Poem of the XIV Century.'' London: Oxford UP, 1874. Republished 1961.
*Barbara Newman. ''From virile woman to womanChrist: studies in medieval religion and literature''. University of Pennsylvania Press (January 1, 1995)
* Jane Tibbetts Schulenburg. ''Forgetful of their sex: female sanctity and society, ca. 500-1100''. University Of Chicago Press (January 1, 2001)
*Yenna Wu, ''The Chinese virago : a literary theme'', Cambridge, Mass.
.a.: Harvard Univ. Press, 1995.
* Schleiner, Winfried. ""Divina Virago": Queen Elizabeth as an Amazon." Studies in Philology 75, no. 2 (1978): 163–80. Accessed June 28, 2020. www.jstor.org/stable/4173965.
Women in war
Christianity and women
Pejorative terms for women