Verbena Dalloniana

''Verbena'' (), also known as vervain or verveine, is a genus in the family Verbenaceae. It contains about 150 species of annual and perennial herbaceous or semi-woody flowering plants. The majority of the species are native to the Americas and Asia; however, '' Verbena officinalis'', the common vervain or common verbena, is the type species and native to Europe.

Naming

In English, the name ''Verbena'' is usually used in the United States and the United Kingdom, whereas elsewhere the terms ''verveine'' or ''vervain'' are in use. When used alone, the terms usually refer to common verbena.

Description

Verbena is an herbaceous flowering plant, belonging to the Verbenaceae family, and may be annual or perennial depending on the species. The leaves are usually opposite, simple, and in many species hairy, often densely so. The flowers are small, with five petals, and borne in dense spikes. Typically some shade of blue, they may also be white, pink, or purple, especially in cultivars.

The genus can be divided into a diploid North American and a polyploid South American lineage, both with a base chromosome number of seven. The European species is derived from the North American lineage. It seems that verbena as well as the related mock vervains (''Glandularia'') evolved from the assemblage provisionally treated under the genus name ''Junellia''; both other genera were usually included in the Verbenaceae until the 1990s. Intergeneric chloroplast gene transfer by an undetermined mechanism – though probably not hybridization – has occurred at least twice from vervains to ''Glandularia'', between the ancestors of the present-day South American lineages and once more recently, between '' V. orcuttiana'' or '' V. hastata'' and '' G. bipinnatifida''. In addition, several species of verbena are of natural hybrid origin; the well-known garden vervain/verbena has an entirely muddy history. The relationships of this close-knit group are therefore hard to resolve with standard methods of computational phylogenetics.

Cultivation

Some species, hybrids and cultivars of verbena are used as ornamental plants. They are drought-resistant, tolerating full to partial sun, and enjoy well-drained, average soils. Plants are usually grown from seed. Some species and hybrids are not hardy and are treated as half-hardy annuals in bedding schemes.

They are valued in butterfly gardening in suitable climates, attracting Lepidoptera such as the Hummingbird hawk-moth, Chocolate albatross, or the Pipevine swallowtail, and also hummingbirds, especially ''V. officinalis'', which is also grown as a honey plant.

The hybrid cultivars "Silver Anne" and "Sissinghurst" have gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit.

Pests and diseases

For some verbena pathogens, see List of verbena diseases. Cultivated verbenas are sometimes parasitized by sweet potato whitefly (''Bemisia tabaci'') and spread this pest to other crops.

Uses

Although verbena ("vervain") has been used in herbalism and traditional medicine, usually as an herbal tonic, there is no high-quality evidence for its effectiveness. Verbena has been listed as one of the 38 plants used to prepare Bach flower remedies, a kind of alternative medicine promoted for its effect on health. According to Cancer Research UK, "essence therapists believe that using essences can help to increase your mental, emotional and spiritual wellbeing. However, essences are not used to prevent, control, or cure cancer or any other physical condition."

The essential oil of various species, mainly common vervain, is traded as "Spanish verbena oil". Considered inferior to oil of lemon verbena (''Aloysia citrodora'') in perfumery, it is of some commercial importance for herbalism.

In culture

Verbena has long been associated with divine and other supernatural forces. It was called "tears of Isis" in ancient Egypt, and later called "Hera's tears". In ancient Greece it was dedicated to Eos Erigineia. The generic name is the Latin term for a plant sacred to the ancient Romans. Pliny the Elder describes ''verbena'' presented on Jupiter altars; it is not entirely clear if this referred to a verbena rather than the general term for prime sacrificial herbs.

Pliny the Elder notes "the Magi especially make the maddest statements about the plant: that mong other thingsa circle must be drawn with iron round the plant". The common names of verbena in many Central and Eastern European languages often associate it with iron. These include for example the Dutch ' ("iron-hard"), Danish ' ("medical ironwort"), German ' ("true ironherb"), Slovak ' ("medical ironherb"), and Hungarian ' ("iron grass").

In the early Christian era, folk legend stated that ''V. officinalis'' was used to staunch Jesus' wounds after his removal from the cross. It was consequently called "holy herb" or (e.g. in Wales) "Devil's bane".

According to the Wiccan writer Doreen Valiente, Vervain flowers signify the goddess Diana and are often depicted on '' cimaruta'', traditional Italian amulets. In the 1870 ''The History and Practice of Magic'' by "Paul Christian" (Jean-Baptiste Pitois) it is employed in the preparation of a mandragora charm. The book also describes its antiseptic capabilities (p. 336), and use as a protection against spells (pp. 339, 414).

While common vervain is not native to North America, it has been introduced there and for example the Pawnee have adopted it as an entheogen enhancer and in oneiromancy (dream divination), much as ''Calea zacatechichi'' is used in Mexico.

An indeterminate vervain is among the plants on the eighth panel of the New World Tapestry (''Expedition to Cape Cod'').

In the Victorian language of flowers, verbena held the dual meaning of enchantment and sensibility.

Species

The following species are accepted:
(See also ''Aloysia'', ''Glandularia'' and ''Junellia'' for species formerly placed here.)

*'' Verbena alata'' Otto ex Sweet
*''Verbena alejandrana'' (B.L.Turner) Christenh. & Byng
*''Verbena × allenii'' Moldenke
*''Verbena amoena'' Paxton
*'' Verbena andalgalensis'' Moldenke
*''Verbena angustilobata'' (Moldenke) Christenh. & Byng
*''Verbena araucana'' Phil.
*''Verbena aristigera'' S.Moore
*''Verbena atacamensis'' Reiche
*''Verbena aurantiaca'' Speg.
*'' Verbena bajacalifornica'' Moldenke
*''Verbena balansae'' Briq.
*'' Verbena barbata'' Graham
*'' Verbena berteroi'' (Meisn.) Schauer
*'' Verbena × bingenensis'' Moldenke
*''Verbena bipinnatifida'' Schauer
*''Verbena × blanchardii'' Moldenke
*'' Verbena bonariensis'' L. – purpletop vervain, clustertop vervain, tall verbena, pretty verbena, South American vervain
*'' Verbena brachyrhynchos'' (G.L.Nesom & Vorobik) Christenh. & Byng
*''Verbena bracteata'' Cav. ex Lag. & Rodr. – prostrate vervain, large-bracted vervain
*''Verbena brasiliensis'' Vell. – Brazilian verbena, Brazilian vervain
*'' Verbena cabrerae'' Moldenke
*'' Verbena californica'' Moldenke – California vervain, Red Hills vervain
*''Verbena calinfera'' G.L.Nesom
*''Verbena canadensis'' (L.) Britton
*''Verbena canescens'' Kunth – gray vervain
*'' Verbena caniuensis'' Moldenke
*''Verbena carnea'' Medik.
*''Verbena carolina'' L.
*''Verbena catharinae'' Moldenke
*'' Verbena cheitmaniana'' Moldenke
*''Verbena chiricahensis'' (Umber) Moldenke
*''Verbena × clemensiorum'' Moldenke
*''Verbena cloverae'' Moldenke
*''Verbena corymbosa'' Ruiz & Pav.
*'' Verbena cuneifolia'' Ruiz & Pav.
*'' Verbena dalloniana'' Quézel
*''Verbena × deamii'' Moldenke
*''Verbena delicatula'' Mart. & Zucc.
*''Verbena delticola'' Small ex Perry
*''Verbena demissa'' Moldenke
*''Verbena dissecta'' Willd. ex Spreng.
*'' Verbena dusenii'' Moldenke
*''Verbena ehrenbergiana'' Schauer
*''Verbena elegans'' Kunth
*'' Verbena × engelmannii'' Moldenke
*''Verbena ephedroides'' Cham.
*''Verbena falcata'' G.L.Nesom
*''Verbena filicaulis'' Schauer
*''Verbena flava'' Gillies & Hook.
*'' Verbena glabrata'' Kunth
*''Verbena gooddingii'' Briq.
*'' Verbena × goodmanii'' Moldenke
*''Verbena goyazensis'' Moldenke
*'' Verbena gracilescens'' (Cham.) Herter
*''Verbena gracilis'' Desf.
*''Verbena grisea'' B.L.Rob. & Greenm.
*''Verbena guaibensis'' (P.Peralta & V.Thode) Christenh. & Byng
*'' Verbena guaranitica'' (Tronc.) Moldenke
*''Verbena gynobasis'' Wedd.
*'' Verbena halei'' Small – Texas vervain
*''Verbena hassleriana'' Briq.
*'' Verbena hastata'' L. – swamp verbena, blue vervain
*''Verbena hatschbachii'' Moldenke
*'' Verbena herteri'' Moldenke
*''Verbena hirta'' Spreng.
*''Verbena hispida'' Ruiz & Pav.
*''Verbena humifusa'' Cham.
*''Verbena × illicita'' Moldenke
*''Verbena incompta'' P.W.Michael
*''Verbena intermedia'' Gillies & Hook.
*''Verbena jessicae'' Nesom & G.S.Hinton
*''Verbena jordanensis'' Moldenke
*'' Verbena kuntzeana'' Moldenke
*''Verbena laciniata'' (L.) Briq.
*''Verbena landbeckii'' Phil.
*''Verbena lasiostachys'' Link – western vervain
*'' Verbena lilacina'' Greene
*'' Verbena lilloana'' Moldenke
*'' Verbena lindbergii'' Moldenke
*''Verbena lindmanii'' Briq.
*''Verbena lipozygioides'' Walp.
*''Verbena litoralis'' Kunth – seashore vervain
*''Verbena livermorensis'' B.L.Turner & G.L.Nesom
*''Verbena lobata'' Vell.
*''Verbena macdougalii'' A.Heller
*'' Verbena macrosperma'' Speg.
*''Verbena madrensis'' G.L.Nesom
*'' Verbena malmii'' Moldenke
*'' Verbena malpaisana'' (T.Van Devender & G.L.Nesom) Christenh. & Byng
*'' Verbena maritima'' Small
*''Verbena marrubioides'' Cham.
*'' Verbena megapotamica'' Spreng.
*''Verbena mendocina'' Phil.
*''Verbena menthifolia'' Benth. – mint vervain
*'' Verbena microphylla'' Kunth
*'' Verbena moctezumae'' G.L.Nesom & T.Van Devender
*''Verbena × moechina'' Moldenke
*'' Verbena montevidensis'' Spreng. – Uruguayan verbena
*''Verbena moranii'' G.L.Nesom
*''Verbena multiglandulosa'' Moldenke
*''Verbena nana'' Moldenke
*''Verbena neomexicana'' (A.Gray) Briq. – hillside vervain
*'' Verbena officinalis'' L. – common vervain, simpler's joy, holy herb, mosquito plant, wild hyssop, herb of the cross (type species)
*''Verbena × ostenii'' Moldenke
*''Verbena ovata'' Cham.
*''Verbena paraguariensis'' Moldenke
*''Verbena paranensis'' Moldenke
*''Verbena parodii'' (Covas & Schnack) Moldenke
*''Verbena paulensis'' Moldenke
*'' Verbena perennis'' Wooton – pinleaf vervain
*''Verbena × perriana'' Moldenke
*''Verbena × perturbata'' Moldenke
*''Verbena peruviana'' (L.) Britton
*'' Verbena phlogiflora'' Cham.
*'' Verbena pinetorum'' Moldenke
*'' Verbena platensis'' Spreng.
*''Verbena plicata'' Greene
*''Verbena polyantha'' (Umber) Moldenke
*'' Verbena porrigens'' Phil.
*''Verbena pumila'' Rydb.
*''Verbena quadrangulata'' A.Heller
*''Verbena racemosa'' Eggert
*'' Verbena radicata'' Moldenke
*''Verbena recta'' Kunth
*''Verbena rectiloba'' Moldenke
*'' Verbena regnelliana'' Moldenke
*''Verbena reitzii'' Moldenke
*''Verbena ribifolia'' Walp.
*'' Verbena rigida'' Spreng. – tuberous vervain
*'' Verbena rugosa'' Mill.
*'' Verbena × rydbergii'' Moldenke
*'' Verbena sagittalis'' Cham.
*'' Verbena santiaguensis'' (Covas & Schnack) Moldenke
*'' Verbena scabra'' Vahl – sandpaper vervain
*''Verbena scabrella'' Sessé & Moc.
*''Verbena scrobiculata'' Griseb.
*'' Verbena selloi'' Spreng.
*'' Verbena sessilis'' (Cham.) Kuntze
*''Verbena simplex'' Lehm. – narrow-leaved vervain
*''Verbena sphaerocarpa'' L.M.Perry
*''Verbena stellarioides'' Cham.
*''Verbena stricta'' Vent. – hoary vervain
*''Verbena strigosa'' Cham.
*'' Verbena × stuprosa'' Moldenke
*'' Verbena subincana'' (Tronc.) Shinners
*''Verbena sulphurea'' D.Don
*''Verbena supina'' L.
*''Verbena tampensis'' Nash
*''Verbena tecticaulis'' Tronc.
*''Verbena tenera'' Spreng.
*''Verbena teucriifolia'' M.Martens & Galeotti
*''Verbena thymoides'' Cham.
*''Verbena tomophylla'' Briq.
*''Verbena townsendii'' Svenson
*'' Verbena tumidula'' L.M.Perry
*''Verbena turneri'' (G.L.Nesom) Christenh. & Byng
*'' Verbena tweedieana'' Niven ex Hook.
*''Verbena urticifolia'' L. – white vervain
*''Verbena × uruguayensis'' Moldenke
*''Verbena valerianoides'' Kunth
*''Verbena venturii'' Moldenke
*''Verbena verecunda'' (Umber) Moldenke
*''Verbena villifolia'' Hayek
*'' Verbena xutha'' Lehm. – gulf vervain

Gallery

File:Verbena obsession cascade pink 163940 02.jpg , Verbena obsession cascade pink
File:Verbena bracteata NPS-1.jpg, Large-bracted Vervain ('' V. bracteata'')
File:Verbena rigida0.jpg, '' Verbena rigida''
File:Verbena speciosa1.jpg, '' Verbena speciosa''
File:Superbena® Scarlet Star or Superbena® Raspberry.jpg, Superbena® Scarlet Star or Superbena® Raspberry
File:Verbena stricta NPS-001.jpg, Hoary Vervain