The Venḓa (VhaVenḓa or Vhangona) are a
Southern Africa
Southern Africa is the southernmost subregion of the African continent, south of the Congo and Tanzania. The physical location is the large part of Africa to the south of the extensive Congo River basin. Southern Africa is home to a number of ...
n
Bantu
Bantu may refer to:
*Bantu languages, constitute the largest sub-branch of the Niger–Congo languages
*Bantu peoples, over 400 peoples of Africa speaking a Bantu language
* Bantu knots, a type of African hairstyle
*Black Association for National ...
people living mostly near the
South Africa
South Africa, officially the Republic of South Africa (RSA), is the southernmost country in Africa. It is bounded to the south by of coastline that stretch along the South Atlantic and Indian Oceans; to the north by the neighbouring countri ...
n-
Zimbabwe
Zimbabwe (), officially the Republic of Zimbabwe, is a landlocked country located in Southeast Africa, between the Zambezi and Limpopo Rivers, bordered by South Africa to the south, Botswana to the south-west, Zambia to the north, and Mozam ...
an border.
The history of the Venda starts from the
Kingdom of Mapungubwe
The Kingdom of Mapungubwe (or Maphungubgwe) (c. 1075–c. 1220) was a medieval state in South Africa located at the confluence of the Shashe and Limpopo rivers, south of Great Zimbabwe. The name is derived from either TjiKalanga and Tshivenda. ...
(9th Century) where King Shiriyadenga was
the first king of Venda and Mapungubwe. The Mapungubwe Kingdom stretched from the
Soutpansberg
The Soutpansberg, (formerly ''Zoutpansberg'') meaning "Salt Pan Mountain" in Afrikaans, is a range of mountains in far northern South Africa. It is located in Vhembe District, Limpopo. It is named for the salt pan ( ve, Thavha ya muno, or "plac ...
in
the south, across the
Limpopo River
The Limpopo River rises in South Africa and flows generally eastward through Mozambique to the Indian Ocean. The term Limpopo is derived from Rivombo (Livombo/Lebombo), a group of Tsonga settlers led by Hosi Rivombo who settled in the mountaino ...
to the Matopos in the north. The Kingdom declined from 1240, and
power moved north to the
Great Zimbabwe
Great Zimbabwe is a medieval city in the south-eastern hills of Zimbabwe near Lake Mutirikwi and the town of Masvingo. It is thought to have been the capital of a great kingdom during the country's Late Iron Age about which little is known. Con ...
Kingdom.
The first Venda settlement in the Soutpansberg was that of the legendary chief Thoho-ya-Ndou (Head of the
Elephant). His royal
kraal
Kraal (also spelled ''craal'' or ''kraul'') is an Afrikaans and Dutch word, also used in South African English, for an enclosure for cattle or other livestock, located within a Southern African settlement or village surrounded by a fence of th ...
was called D’zata; its remains have been declared a National Monument. The Mapungubwe Collection is a
museum collection of artefacts found at the archaeological site and is housed in the Mapungubwe Museum in Pretoria. Venda people share ancestry with
Lobedu people
The Lobedu or Balobedu ''(''also known as the BaLozwi or Bathobolo'')'' are a southern African ethnic group. Their area is called Bolobedu. They are initially known as Bakwebo (wild pigs). The name "balobedu" means "the mineral miners" lobela ...
and
Kalanga people
The Kalanga or Bakalanga are a southern Bantu ethnic group mainly inhabiting Matebeleland in Zimbabwe, northeastern Botswana and Limpopo Province in South Africa. They are historically related to the Nambya, Karanga, Bapedi and Venda.
Curren ...
. They are also related to Sotho-Tswana peoples Sotho-Tswana and
Shona
Shona often refers to:
* Shona people, a Southern African people
* Shona language, a Bantu language spoken by Shona people today
Shona may also refer to:
* ''Shona'' (album), 1994 album by New Zealand singer Shona Laing
* Shona (given name)
* S ...
groups. All these tribes were under the Venda kingdom.
History
The Venda of today are Vhangona, Takalani (Ungani), Masingo and others. Vhangona are the original inhabitants of Venda, they are also referred as Vhongwani wapo; while Masingo and others are originally from central Africa and the
East African Rift
The East African Rift (EAR) or East African Rift System (EARS) is an active continental rift zone in East Africa. The EAR began developing around the onset of the Miocene, 22–25 million years ago. In the past it was considered to be part of a ...
, migrating across the
Limpopo river
The Limpopo River rises in South Africa and flows generally eastward through Mozambique to the Indian Ocean. The term Limpopo is derived from Rivombo (Livombo/Lebombo), a group of Tsonga settlers led by Hosi Rivombo who settled in the mountaino ...
during the
Bantu expansion
The Bantu expansion is a hypothesis about the history of the major series of migrations of the original Proto-Bantu-speaking group, which spread from an original nucleus around Central Africa across much of sub-Saharan Africa. In the process, t ...
, Venda people originated from central and east Africa, just like the other South African tribes.
The Venda of today are descendants of many heterogeneous groupings and clans such as:
* Dzindou dza Hakhomunala Mutangwe / Dzatshamanyatsha
* Dzindou dza Vharundwa / Dza Mitshetoni /Dza Manenzhe
* Vhafamadi;
* Vhadau vhatshiheni
* Vhadau Madamani
* Rambuda;
* Vha Ha-Ramavhulela (Vhubvo Dzimauli)
* Vhakwevho;
*Vha Ha-Maďavha (Great Warthogs of Luonde who immigrated from Zimbabwe)
* Vhambedzi;
* Vhania;
* Vhagoni;
* Vhalea;
* Gebebe;
*Ndou;
*Maďou
*Vhasekwa
* Vhaluvhu;
* Vhatavhatsindi;
* Vhalovhedzi
* VhaMese
*Vha Ha-Nemutudi
* Vhatwanamba;
* Vhanzhelele/Vhalembethu;
* VhaDzanani
*Vhashavhi / VhaLemba
* Vhanyai;
* Vhalaudzi;
* Masingo; and
* Vhalemba.
* Runganani (marungadzi nndevhelaho)
* Takalani(Ungani)
Vhadau, Vhakwevho, Vhafamadi, Vhania, Vhalea, and Vhaluvhu were collectively known as Vhangona. The Vhangona and Vhambedzi are considered to be the original inhabitants of Venda and the first people to live there.
The land of Vhangona was later settled by Karanga-Rodzvi clans from Zimbabwe: Vhatwanamba, Vhanyai, Vhatavhatsindi, and Vhalembethu. Masingo, Vhalaudzi, and Vhalemba are late arrivals in Venda.
According to one version of Vhangona oral history the capital of Vhangona was
Mapungubwe
The Kingdom of Mapungubwe (or Maphungubgwe) (c. 1075–c. 1220) was a medieval state in South Africa located at the confluence of the Shashe and Limpopo rivers, south of Great Zimbabwe. The name is derived from either TjiKalanga and Tshivenda. ...
with the Raphulu Royal House as the most senior royal house of the Vhangona. According to this version the Vhangona Kingdom had approximately 145 chiefdoms and a King (Thovhele). It is said that the Kingdom was divided into seven districts:
* Dzanani
* Mbilwi
* Tswime
* Tshiendeulu
* Tshakhuma
* Tshamanyatsha
* Lwamondo
These districts were ruled by District Paramount Chiefs (Mahosi Mahulu), as follows:
* MuDzanani/Nesongozwi (Dzanani)
* Nembilwi (Mbilwi)
* Netswime (Tswime)
* Netshiendeulu (Tshiendeulu)
* Netshakhuma (Tshakhuma)
* Netshamanyatsha (Tshamanyantsha)
* Makhahani (Thulamela)
* NELWAMONDO (Lwamondo)
Each district had Chiefs (Khosi) who paid tribute to Mahosi Mahulu (Paramount Chiefs), then there were Headmen (VhaMusanda) and then Petty Headmen (Vhakoma). This tradition states that one of the Vhangona kings was King Shiriyadenga whose royal kraal was at Mapungubwe. It is not clear if this Shiriyadenga is the same as Shiriyedenga of the Sanga dynasty, a Karanga-Rozvi branch. The Sanga dynasty, in Zimbabwe's eastern highlands, was founded by Chiphaphami Shiriyedenga who died in 1672. Perhaps at one point the Karanga-Rodzvi Empire extended beyond the Vhembe (Limpopo) River, and the Vhangona, though not Karanga-speaking, were at one point under Karanga-Rodzvi rule.
The other version of Vhangona history disputes that the Vhangona were ever united under one chief or king. It says that the Vhangona had different independent chiefdoms and that the Vhangona chief of
Nzhelele valley was Tshidziwelele of the Mudau clan. What is clear, however, is that the Vhatwanamba, who were of Karanga-Rodzvi origin, conquered Vhangona clans who lived in Mapungubwe, Musina, Ha-Tshivhula, Ha-Lishivha, Ha-Matshete, Ha-Mulambwane, and Ha-Madzhie (the areas of Ha-Tshivhula, Ha-Lishivha, Ha-Matshete, and Ha-Mulambwane are known today as Alldays and Waterpoort).
Mapungubwe was the center of a kingdom with about 5,000 people living at its center. Mapungubwe as a trade center lasted between 1030 and 1290 AD. The people of Mapungubwe mined and smelted copper, iron and gold, spun cotton, made glass and ceramics, grew millet and sorghum, and tended cattle, goats and sheep.
The people of Mapungubwe had a sophisticated knowledge of the stars, and astronomy played a major role not only in their tradition and culture, but also in their day-to-day lives. Mapungubwe traded with ancient Ethiopia through the ports of Adulis on the Red Sea and the ports of Raphta (now Quelimani) and Zafara (now Sofala) in Mozambique.
Mapungubwe predates the settlements at
Great Zimbabwe
Great Zimbabwe is a medieval city in the south-eastern hills of Zimbabwe near Lake Mutirikwi and the town of Masvingo. It is thought to have been the capital of a great kingdom during the country's Late Iron Age about which little is known. Con ...
,
Thulamela
__NOTOC__
Thulamela is the most dramatic of the around 300 archaeological sites identified in Kruger National Park. It is located on heights south of the Levubu River offering a panoramic view. Sidney Miller led excavations from December 1993 to ...
and
Dzata. It is believed that people left Mapungubwe for Great Zimbabwe because Great Zimbabwe was judged to have a more suitable climate.
The Venda were recognised as a traditional royal house in 2010 and Toni Mphephu Ramabulana has been acting king since 2012. In September 2016 Princess Masindi Mphephu, daughter of Tshimangadzi Mphephu (Venda Chief during 1993–1997), challenged her uncle Ramabulana for the throne. She claimed that she wasn't considered a candidate because of her sex.
On 14 December 2016 she initially lost this battle in court when the
Thohoyandou High Court dismissed the case.
In May 2019, however, the Supreme Court of Appeal overturned the Thoyoyandou High Court decision and declared that Toni Mphephu-Ramabulana's appointment as king of the Venda nation was unlawful. Ramubulana has since appealed this ruling, and as of July 2020 the matter was before the Constitutional Court of South Africa.
Notable Venda people
![Cases Venda](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/97/Cases_Venda.jpg)
The following is a list of notable Venda people who have their own Wikipedia articles
*
Cyril Ramaphosa
Matamela Cyril Ramaphosa (born 17 November 1952) is a South African businessman and politician who is currently serving as the fifth democratically elected president of South Africa. Formerly an anti-apartheid activist, trade union leader, and ...
, 5th President of the Republic of South Africa
*
Benedict Daswa
Benedict Daswa (born Tshimangadzo Samuel Daswa; 16 June 1946 – 2 February 1990), was a South African school teacher and principal. He was given the name of "Samuel" by his parents when he started to attend school and assumed the name "Benedic ...
, South African school teacher
beatified
Beatification (from Latin ''beatus'', "blessed" and ''facere'', "to make”) is a recognition accorded by the Catholic Church of a deceased person's entrance into Heaven and capacity to intercede on behalf of individuals who pray in their nam ...
by the Roman
Catholic Church
The Catholic Church, also known as the Roman Catholic Church, is the largest Christian church, with 1.3 billion baptized Catholics worldwide . It is among the world's oldest and largest international institutions, and has played a ...
*
Colbert Mukwevho, South African reggae singer
*
Mulalo Doyoyo
Mulalo Doyoyo (born 13 August 1970) is a South African engineer, inventor, and professor.
Doyoyo is a researcher in applied mechanics, ultralight materials, green building, renewable energy, and other fields of engineering. He has lectured ...
, South African engineer, inventor, and professor
*
E. S. Madima, South African writer
*
Mukhethwa Mukhadi, South African singer, rapper, producer and director
*
Tenda Madima, South African writer
*
Tshilidzi Marwala
Tshilidzi Marwala (born 28 July 1971) is a South African artificial intelligence engineer, a computer scientist, a mechanical engineer and a university administrator.
Early life and education
Marwala was born at Duthuni Village in the Li ...
, Vice-Chancellor of the
University of Johannesburg
The University of Johannesburg (UJ) is a public university located in Johannesburg, South Africa. The University of Johannesburg came into existence on 1 January 2005 as the result of a merger between the Rand Afrikaans University (RAU), the ...
, South African engineer and computer scientist
*
Florence Masebe
Florence Masebe is a South African actress, known locally for her role in the series ''Muvhango''.
She won Africa Movie Academy Award for Best Actress in a Leading Role at the 9th Africa Movie Academy Awards.
Filmography
* ''Morwalela''
* ''7 d ...
, South African actress
*
Shaun Maswanganyi, South African athlete
*
Mark Mathabane, South African tennis player and author of ''
Kaffir Boy
''Kaffir Boy: The True Story of a Black Youth's Coming of Age in Apartheid South Africa'' is Mark Mathabane's 1986 autobiography about life under the South African apartheid regime. It focuses on the brutality of the apartheid system and how he ...
''
*
Patrick Mphephu
Chief Patrick Ramaano Mphephu ( 1924 – 17 April 1988) was the first President of the bantustan of Venda, which was granted nominal independence from South Africa on 13 September 1979.
Mphephu was born in Dzanani settlement and after graduat ...
, first president of the
bantustan
A Bantustan (also known as Bantu homeland, black homeland, black state or simply homeland; ) was a territory that the National Party administration of South Africa set aside for black inhabitants of South Africa and South West Africa (now N ...
of
Venda
Venda () was a Bantustan in northern South Africa, which is fairly close to the South African border with Zimbabwe to the north, while to the south and east, it shared a long border with another black homeland, Gazankulu. It is now part of the ...
*
Frank Ravele
Chief Frank Ndwakhulu Ravele (1926–1999) was the second President of the bantustan of Venda, which was granted nominal independence from South Africa on 13 September 1979.
Ravele became president on 17 April 1988, after the death of Chief Pat ...
, second president of the bantustan of Venda
*
Fulu Mugovhani
Fulu Mugovhani (born 7 September 1990 in Thohoyandou) is a South African actress. In 2015, she starred in ''Ayanda'' as the title character, a role that earned her many accolades and nominations including the Africa Movie Academy Awards, South A ...
, South African actress
*
Shudufhadzo Musida, Miss South Africa 2020 winner
*
Sydney Mufamadi
Fholisani Sydney Mufamadi (born 28 February 1959) is a South African politician. He was Minister of Safety and Security from 1994 to 1999 and Minister of Provincial and Local Government from 1999 to 2008.
Early life
Mufamadi was born on 28 Feb ...
, South African politician
*
Gumani Mukwevho
Gumani Tania Mukwevho is a South African politician who was a Member of the National Assembly of South Africa from August to November 2021. Mukwevho is a member of the African National Congress.
Political career
Mukwevho is a member of the Afri ...
, South African politician
*
Elaine Mukheli, South African singer and songwriter
*
Azwinndini Muronga, South African physicist
*
Fulufhelo Nelwamondo
Fulufhelo Vincent Nelwamondo ( OMS) is an electrical engineer by training, and holds a PhD in Electrical Engineering (Computational Intelligence) from the University of the Witwatersrand, in South Africa. He is the youngest recipient of the Harv ...
, South African engineer and computer scientist
*
Faith Muthambi
Azwihangwisi Faith Muthambi is the former Minister of Public Service and Administration and former Minister of Communications of South Africa.
Career
Muthambi held a number of positions prior to her appointment to President Jacob Zuma's cab ...
, South African politician
*
Phillip Ndou, South African boxer
*
Lovemore Ndou
Lovemore Ndou (born 16 August 1971) is a South African-Australian solicitor and former professional boxer who competed from 1993 to 2012. He held the IBF junior-welterweight title in 2007, and the IBO welterweight title from 2009 to 2010.
...
, South African-Australian boxer
*
Joel Netshitenzhe
Joel Netshitenzhe (born 21 December 1956) is a South African politician and strategist, known for his policy and communications work for the African National Congress (ANC). He served as head of communications under President Nelson Mandela (199 ...
, South African politician
*
George Phadagi, South African politician
*
Kagiso Rabada
Kagiso Rabada (born 25 May 1995) is a South African international cricketer who plays all formats of the game. He is a right arm fast bowler. He made his international debut in November 2014 in limited-overs cricket before going on to make his ...
, South African cricketer
*
Ndivhudzannyi Ralivhona, South African musician
*
Joe Mafela, South African actor, film director and singer
*
Kembo Mohadi, Vice President of Zimbabwe.
*
Mashudu Tshifularo, South African educator and medical specialist
*
Mpho Tshivhase, South African philosopher
*
Daniel Mudau
Daniel Mudau (born 4 September 1968) is a South African former footballer who played at both professional and international levels as a striker.
Early life
Daniel Mbulaheni Mudau was born on 4 September 1968 in Mamelodi.
Career
Mudau played ...
, South African footballer
*
Khuliso Mudau, South African footballer
*
Rodney Ramagalela, South African footballer
*
Prince Neluonde, South African lawn bowler
*
Eric Mathoho
Eric "Tower" Mathoho (born 1 May 1990 in Thohoyandou) is a South African football central defender. He currently plays for Kaizer Chiefs and South Africa.
Early life
Mathoho was born in Tshiombo near Thohoyandou. He played soccer from a young ...
, South African footballer
*
Mbulaeni Mulaudzi
Mbulaeni Tongai Mulaudzi (8 September 1980 – 24 October 2014) was a South African middle distance runner, and the 2009 world champion in the men's 800 metres.
His first global medal was a silver at the 2000 African Championships in Athletics ...
, South African middle-distance runner
*
Collen Mulaudzi, South African long-distance runner
*
Rhoda Mulaudzi
Rhoda Mulaudzi (born 2 December 1989) is a South African soccer player who plays as a forward for Belarusian club FC Dinamo Minsk and the South Africa women's national team.
Club career
On 20 August 2018, Canberra United announced they had ...
, South African footballer
*
Gabriel Ramushwana
Gabriel Ramushwana (1 July 1941 – 12 January 2015) was a head of state of the Bantustan of Venda. He joined the SAP in Welkom as a Constable in 1960 and was seconded to the SADF 112 Infantry Battalion as a Warrant Officer in 1973. After being ...
, former head of state of the
bantustan
A Bantustan (also known as Bantu homeland, black homeland, black state or simply homeland; ) was a territory that the National Party administration of South Africa set aside for black inhabitants of South Africa and South West Africa (now N ...
of
Venda
Venda () was a Bantustan in northern South Africa, which is fairly close to the South African border with Zimbabwe to the north, while to the south and east, it shared a long border with another black homeland, Gazankulu. It is now part of the ...
*
Makhado
Makhado (also: Makhato or Makgato, c.1839 – 3 September 1895) was a 19th-century chief (or ''khosi'') in the Singo (or Vhasenzi) dynasty of the Vendas. They ruled over the Dzanani "district" of the Zoutpansberg region of South Africa. He was t ...
, 19th century King of the Venda people
*
Gabriel Temudzani
Gabriel Temudzani (born 10 February 1980) is a South African actor and TV presenter.
He is known for his role of Chief Vhafuwi Azwindini since 2000, on the TV soap opera ''Muvhango'' aired on SABC 2, on which he has been an actor since 2000.
...
, South African actor
*
Jacob Tshisevhe
Jacob Tshisevhe (born 4 April 1969 at Rustenburg sandfontein village, North West Province, South Africa), was a South African football (soccer) defender who played for Kaizer Chiefs, Mamelodi Sundowns, Black Leopards and Pietersburg Pillars
C ...
, South African footballer
*
Tshifhiwa Munyai
Tshifhiwa Munyai (born 8 May 1985) is a South African professional boxer who challenged for the WBA super-bantamweight title in 2014. He also held the Commonwealth bantamweight title from 2006 to 2007, and the IBO super-bantamweight title in ...
, South African boxer
*
Clarence Munyai
Clarence Munyai (born 20 February 1998) is a South African sprinter. He is the current South African record holder in the 200 metres, with a time of 19.69, set on 16 March 2018 at the South African national championships. He is ranked 10th in ...
, South African sprinter
*
Marks Munyai, South African footballer
*
Fred Phaswana, South African businessman
*
Mmbara Hulisani Kevin
Mmbara Hulisani Kevin (born 1979) is the former president of PAYCO, a youth wing of PAC in South Africa. Hulisani made news headlines when he took a defiant stance against Letlapa Mphahlele, even going to the extent of calling for his resignat ...
, South African politician
*
Tshilidzi Nephawe, South African basketball player
*
Rudzani Ramudzuli, South African footballer
Richard Ramudzuli South African Events Organizer
*
Michael Masutha
Tshililo Michael Masutha is a South African advocate and retired politician. He was born in Valdezia in 1965 in Northern Transvaal, what is now Limpopo province, in South Africa. He is the former Minister of Justice and Correctional Services. Be ...
, South African politician
*
Rendani Masutha, South African naval officer and former military judge
*
Khume Ramulifho, South African politician
*
Luvhengo Mungomeni
Luvhengo Mungomeni (born 18 February 1985) is a South African former association football, soccer player who played as a Defender (association football), defender. He played club football for Bush Bucks F.C., Bush Bucks, Black Leopards F.C., Bla ...
, South African footballer
*
Rasta Rasivhenge, South African rugby union referee
*
Ernst Oswald Johannes Westphal
Ernst Oswald Johannes Gotthard Gotthilf Westphal ( Khalava in Venda, South Africa, 1919 - Bredasdorp near Cape Town, South Africa, 27 November 1990), was a South African linguist and an expert in Bantu and Khoisan languages. From 1949 to 1962 he ...
, Professor of African Languages, b. Khalavha 1919
*
Rudzani Maphwanya
General Rudzani Maphwanya (born 23 November 1960) is a South African military commander who served as Chief of Joint Operations from 2019 till May 2021. He was appointed Chief of the South African National Defence Force (SANDF) on 1 June 2021. ...
, South African Army officer
*
Riky Rick
Rikhado Muziwendlovu Makhado (20 July 1987 23 February 2022), known professionally as Riky Rick, was a South African rapper, singer and producer. He was also the founder and owner of record label Cotton Club Records and a member of Boyz N Buck ...
, South African rapper, songwriter and actor
*
Phophi Ramathuba
Phophi Constance Ramathuba (born 15 August 1973) is a South African politician and medical doctor. She has been the Limpopo MEC (Member of the Executive Council) for Health and a Member of the Limpopo Provincial Legislature since May 2015. Ramath ...
, South African politician and medical doctor
*
Khumbudzo Ntshavheni, South African politician
*
Mavhungu Lerule-Ramakhanya, South African politician
*
Milicent Makhado
Millicent Tshiwela Makhado is a South African actress and voice-over artist, best known for her role as "Agnes Mukwevho" in ''Muvhango''. In 2012, she was nominated for the Africa Movie Academy Award for Best Actress in a Leading Role for playin ...
, South African actress
*
Dan Tshanda, South African musician
*
Phathutshedzo Nange, South African footballer
*
Rotshidzwa Muleka, South African footballer
*
Thomas Gumbu, South African politician
*
Noria Mabasa, Venda artist who works in
ceramic
A ceramic is any of the various hard, brittle, heat-resistant and corrosion-resistant materials made by shaping and then firing an inorganic, nonmetallic material, such as clay, at a high temperature. Common examples are earthenware, porcelain ...
and wood sculpture
Musangwe
Musangwe is a Venda tradition of bare-knuckle fist fighting. Musangwe is a sport which was developed not only for entertainment but also for gaining respect among your peers. Vhavenda never allowed violence and fighting, but with this sport you could challenge a person you deemed disrespectful towards you, and the rule is if you are challenged to fight you are to fight or there will be consequences such as a fine or even been beaten up by the elders. The winners of this sport were often compensated with whatever the Khosi (chief) or Vhamusanda (headman) deemed right.
The fights have no set time limit and only end when one fighter concedes defeat. No medical staff are on standby to help those injured in the flurry of blows that boxers trade, only village elders watching to guard against indiscretions such as biting or kicking.
Importantly, gambling on the outcome of the fights is banned and the winners take nothing away other than a sense of pride in representing their village or family.
References
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