''Vedanta'' (; sa, वेदान्त, ), also ''Uttara Mīmāṃsā'', is one of the six
(''āstika'') schools of
Hindu philosophy
Hindu philosophy encompasses the philosophies, world views and teachings of Hinduism that emerged in Ancient India which include six systems ('' shad-darśana'') – Samkhya, Yoga, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Mimamsa and Vedanta.Andrew Nicholson (20 ...
. Literally meaning "end of the
Vedas
upright=1.2, The Vedas are ancient Sanskrit texts of Hinduism. Above: A page from the '' Atharvaveda''.
The Vedas (, , ) are a large body of religious texts originating in ancient India. Composed in Vedic Sanskrit, the texts constitute the ...
", Vedanta reflects ideas that emerged from, or were aligned with, the speculations and philosophies contained in the
Upanishad
The Upanishads (; sa, उपनिषद् ) are late Vedic Sanskrit texts that supplied the basis of later Hindu philosophy.Wendy Doniger (1990), ''Textual Sources for the Study of Hinduism'', 1st Edition, University of Chicago Press, , ...
s, specifically, knowledge and liberation. Vedanta contains many sub-traditions, all of which are based on a common group of texts called the "Three Sources" (''
prasthānatrayī
Prasthanatrayi ( sa, प्रस्थानत्रयी, IAST: ), literally, ''three sources (or axioms)'', refers to the three canonical texts of theology having epistemic authority, especially of the Vedanta schools. It consists of:
# The ...
''): ''
the Upanishads
The Upanishads (; sa, उपनिषद् ) are Vedic period, late Vedic Sanskrit texts that supplied the basis of later Hindu philosophy.Wendy Doniger (1990), ''Textual Sources for the Study of Hinduism'', 1st Edition, University of Chic ...
'', the ''
Brahma Sutras
The ''Brahma Sūtras'' ( sa, ब्रह्मसूत्राणि) is a Sanskrit text, attributed to the sage bādarāyaṇa or sage Vyāsa, estimated to have been completed in its surviving form in approx. 400–450 CE,, Quote: "...we can ...
'' and the ''
Bhagavad Gita
The Bhagavad Gita (; sa, श्रीमद्भगवद्गीता, lit=The Song by God, translit=śrīmadbhagavadgītā;), often referred to as the Gita (), is a 700- verse Hindu scripture that is part of the epic ''Mahabharata'' (c ...
''.
All Vedanta traditions contain extensive discussions on
ontology
In metaphysics, ontology is the philosophical study of being, as well as related concepts such as existence, becoming, and reality.
Ontology addresses questions like how entities are grouped into categories and which of these entities exis ...
,
soteriology
Soteriology (; el, σωτηρία ' "salvation" from σωτήρ ' "savior, preserver" and λόγος ' "study" or "word") is the study of religious doctrines of salvation. Salvation theory occupies a place of special significance in many religio ...
and
epistemology
Epistemology (; ), or the theory of knowledge, is the branch of philosophy concerned with knowledge. Epistemology is considered a major subfield of philosophy, along with other major subfields such as ethics, logic, and metaphysics.
Episte ...
, though there is much disagreement among the various schools. The main traditions of Vedanta are:
''Advaita'' (
non-dualism
Nondualism, also called nonduality and nondual awareness, is a fuzzy concept originating in Indian philosophy and religion for which many definitions can be found, including: nondual awareness, the nonduality of seer and seen or nondiffer ...
), ''
Bhedabheda
Bhedābheda Vedānta is a subschool of Vedānta, which teaches that the individual self (''jīvātman'') is both different and not different from the ultimate reality known as Brahman.
Etymology
''Bhedābheda'' (Devanagari: ) is a Sanskrit wor ...
'' (difference and non-difference), ''
Suddhadvaita
Shuddadvaita (Sanskrit: "pure non-dualism") is the "purely non-dual" philosophy propounded by Vallabhacharya (1479-1531 CE), the founding philosopher and guru of the ("tradition of Vallabh") or ("The path of grace"), a Hindu Vaishnava tradit ...
'' (pure non-dualism), ''
Tattvavada
Dvaita Vedanta (); (originally known as Tattvavada; IAST:Tattvavāda), is a sub-school in the Vedanta tradition of Hindu philosophy. The term Tattvavada literally means "arguments from a realist viewpoint". The Tattvavada (Dvaita) Vedanta sub ...
(
Dvaita
Dvaita Vedanta (); (originally known as Tattvavada; IAST:Tattvavāda), is a sub-school in the Vedanta tradition of Hindu philosophy. The term Tattvavada literally means "arguments from a realist viewpoint". The Tattvavada (Dvaita) Vedanta su ...
)'' (dualism), and ''
Vishishtadvaita
Vishishtadvaita (IAST '; sa, विशिष्टाद्वैत) is one of the most popular schools of the Vedanta school of Hindu philosophy. Vedanta literally means the in depth meaning ''of the Vedas.'' ''Vishisht Advaita'' (literall ...
'' (qualified non-dualism).
Modern developments in Vedanta include
Neo-Vedanta
Neo-Vedanta, also called Hindu modernism, neo-Hinduism, Global Hinduism and Hindu Universalism, are terms to characterize interpretations of Hinduism that developed in the 19th century. The term "Neo-Vedanta" was coined by German Indologist ...
, and the growth of the
Swaminarayan Sampradaya
The Swaminarayan Sampradaya, also known as Swaminarayan Hinduism and Swaminarayan movement, is a Hindu Vaishnava sampradaya rooted in Ramanuja's Vishishtadvaita, characterized by the worship of its charismatic founder Sahajanand Swami, be ...
.
Most major Vedanta schools, except Advaita Vedanta and Neo-Vedanta, are related to
Vaishnavism
Vaishnavism ( sa, वैष्णवसम्प्रदायः, Vaiṣṇavasampradāyaḥ) is one of the major Hindu denominations along with Shaivism, Shaktism, and Smartism. It is also called Vishnuism since it considers Vishnu as the ...
and emphasize devotion (
Bhakti yoga
Bhakti yoga ( sa, भक्ति योग), also called Bhakti marga (, literally the path of ''Bhakti''), is a spiritual path or spiritual practice within Hinduism focused on loving devotion towards any personal deity.Karen Pechelis (2014), ...
) to
God
In monotheism, monotheistic thought, God is usually viewed as the supreme being, creator deity, creator, and principal object of Faith#Religious views, faith.Richard Swinburne, Swinburne, R.G. "God" in Ted Honderich, Honderich, Ted. (ed)''The Ox ...
, understood as being
Vishnu
Vishnu ( ; , ), also known as Narayana and Hari, is one of the principal deities of Hinduism. He is the supreme being within Vaishnavism, one of the major traditions within contemporary Hinduism.
Vishnu is known as "The Preserver" within t ...
,
Krishna
Krishna (; sa, कृष्ण ) is a major deity in Hinduism. He is worshipped as the eighth avatar of Vishnu and also as the Supreme god in his own right. He is the god of protection, compassion, tenderness, and love; and is one ...
or a related
manifestation
Manifestation is the act of becoming manifest, to become perceptible to the senses.
Manifestation may also refer to:
* Manifestation of conscience, a practice in religious orders
* Manifestation of God (Baháʼí Faith), the prophets of the Bah ...
. Advaita Vedanta meanwhile, emphasizes
jñana (knowledge) and
jñana yoga over
theistic
Theism is broadly defined as the belief in the existence of a supreme being or deities. In common parlance, or when contrasted with ''deism'', the term often describes the classical conception of God that is found in monotheism (also referred to ...
devotion. While Advaita
monism
Monism attributes oneness or singleness (Greek: μόνος) to a concept e.g., existence. Various kinds of monism can be distinguished:
* Priority monism states that all existing things go back to a source that is distinct from them; e.g., i ...
has attracted considerable attention in the West due to the influence of modern
Hindus
Hindus (; ) are people who religiously adhere to Hinduism.Jeffery D. Long (2007), A Vision for Hinduism, IB Tauris, , pages 35–37 Historically, the term has also been used as a geographical, cultural, and later religious identifier for ...
like Swami
Vivekananda
Swami Vivekananda (; ; 12 January 1863 – 4 July 1902), born Narendranath Datta (), was an Indian Hindu monk, philosopher, author, religious teacher, and the chief disciple of the Indian mystic Ramakrishna. He was a key figure in the introd ...
and
Ramana Maharshi
Ramana Maharshi (; 30 December 1879 – 14 April 1950) was an Indian Hindu sage and ''jivanmukta'' (liberated being). He was born Venkataraman Iyer, but is mostly known by the name Bhagavan Sri Ramana Maharshi.
He was born in Tiruchuli, Ta ...
, most of the other Vedanta traditions focus on Vaishnava
theology
Theology is the systematic study of the nature of the divine and, more broadly, of religious belief. It is taught as an academic discipline, typically in universities and seminaries. It occupies itself with the unique content of analyzing the ...
.
Etymology and nomenclature
The word ''Vedanta'' is made of two words :
*
Veda
FIle:Atharva-Veda samhita page 471 illustration.png, upright=1.2, The Vedas are ancient Sanskrit texts of Hinduism. Above: A page from the ''Atharvaveda''.
The Vedas (, , ) are a large body of religious texts originating in ancient India. Co ...
(वेद) - refers to the four sacred vedic texts.
* Anta (अंत) - this word means "End".
The word ''Vedanta'' literally means the ''end of the
Vedas
upright=1.2, The Vedas are ancient Sanskrit texts of Hinduism. Above: A page from the '' Atharvaveda''.
The Vedas (, , ) are a large body of religious texts originating in ancient India. Composed in Vedic Sanskrit, the texts constitute the ...
'' and originally referred to the ''
Upanishads
The Upanishads (; sa, उपनिषद् ) are late Vedic Sanskrit texts that supplied the basis of later Hindu philosophy.Wendy Doniger (1990), ''Textual Sources for the Study of Hinduism'', 1st Edition, University of Chicago Press, , ...
''. Vedanta is concerned with the or knowledge section of the vedas which is called the ''Upanishads''. The denotation of Vedanta subsequently widened to include the various philosophical traditions based on to the ''
Prasthanatrayi
Prasthanatrayi ( sa, प्रस्थानत्रयी, IAST: ), literally, ''three sources (or axioms)'', refers to the three canonical texts of theology having epistemic authority, especially of the Vedanta schools. It consists of:
# The ...
''.
The ''
Upanishads
The Upanishads (; sa, उपनिषद् ) are late Vedic Sanskrit texts that supplied the basis of later Hindu philosophy.Wendy Doniger (1990), ''Textual Sources for the Study of Hinduism'', 1st Edition, University of Chicago Press, , ...
'' may be regarded as the end of ''Vedas'' in different senses:
# These were the last literary products of the Vedic period.
# These mark the culmination of Vedic thought.
# These were taught and debated last, in the ''
Brahmacharya
''Brahmacharya'' (; sa, ब्रह्मचर्य ) is a concept within Indian religions that literally means to stay in conduct within one's own Self. In Yoga, Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism it generally refers to a lifestyle charac ...
'' (student) stage.
Vedanta is one of the six
orthodox (''āstika'') schools of
Indian philosophy
Indian philosophy refers to philosophical traditions of the Indian subcontinent. A traditional Hindu classification divides āstika and nāstika schools of philosophy, depending on one of three alternate criteria: whether it believes the Veda ...
. It is also called ''Uttara Mīmāṃsā'', which means the 'latter enquiry' or 'higher enquiry'; and is often contrasted with ''
Pūrva Mīmāṃsā'', the 'former enquiry' or 'primary enquiry'. ''Pūrva Mīmāṃsā'' deals with the ''karmakāṇḍa'' or ritualistic section (the ''
Samhita
Saṃhitā literally means "put together, joined, union", a "collection", and "a methodically, rule-based combination of text or verses".[Brahmana
The Brahmanas (; Sanskrit: , ''Brāhmaṇam'') are Vedic śruti works attached to the Samhitas (hymns and mantras) of the Rig, Sama, Yajur, and Atharva Vedas. They are a secondary layer or classification of Sanskrit texts embedded within ea ...]
s'') in the ''Vedas''.
Vedanta philosophy
Common features
Despite their differences, all schools of Vedanta share some common features:
* Vedanta is the pursuit of knowledge into the ''
Brahman
In Hinduism, ''Brahman'' ( sa, ब्रह्मन्) connotes the highest universal principle, the ultimate reality in the universe.P. T. Raju (2006), ''Idealistic Thought of India'', Routledge, , page 426 and Conclusion chapter part X ...
'' and the ''
Ātman''.
* The ''
Upaniṣads'', the ''
Bhagavadgītā
The Bhagavad Gita (; sa, श्रीमद्भगवद्गीता, lit=The Song by God, translit=śrīmadbhagavadgītā;), often referred to as the Gita (), is a 700- verse Hindu scripture that is part of the epic ''Mahabharata'' (c ...
'' and the ''
Brahma Sūtras'' constitute the basis of Vedanta (known as
the three canonical sources).
* Scripture (Sruti Śabda) is main reliable source of knowledge (''
pramana
''Pramana'' (Sanskrit: प्रमाण, ) literally means " proof" and "means of knowledge".[Brahman
In Hinduism, ''Brahman'' ( sa, ब्रह्मन्) connotes the highest universal principle, the ultimate reality in the universe.P. T. Raju (2006), ''Idealistic Thought of India'', Routledge, , page 426 and Conclusion chapter part X ...]
'' - ''
Ishvara
''Ishvara'' () is a concept in Hinduism, with a wide range of meanings that depend on the era and the school of Hinduism.Monier Monier Williams, Sanskrit-English dictionarySearch for Izvara University of Cologne, Germany In ancient texts of H ...
'' (God), exists as the unchanging material cause and instrumental cause of the world. The only exception here is that Dvaita Vedanta does not hold Brahman to be the material cause, but only the efficient cause.
* The self (''
Ātman'' or ''
Jiva
''Jiva'' ( sa, जीव, IAST: ) is a living being or any entity imbued with a life force in Hinduism and Jīva (Jainism), Jainism. The word itself originates from the Sanskrit verb-root ''jīv'', which translates as 'to breathe' or 'to live'. ...
'') is the agent of its own acts (''
karma
Karma (; sa, कर्म}, ; pi, kamma, italic=yes) in Sanskrit means an action, work, or deed, and its effect or consequences. In Indian religions, the term more specifically refers to a principle of cause and effect, often descriptivel ...
'') and the recipient of the consequences of these actions.
* Belief in rebirth (''
samsara'') and the desirability of release from the cycle of rebirths ''(
moksha
''Moksha'' (; sa, मोक्ष, '), also called ''vimoksha'', ''vimukti'' and ''mukti'', is a term in Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism for various forms of emancipation, enlightenment, liberation, and release. In its soteriology, ...
)''.
* Rejection of
Buddhism
Buddhism ( , ), also known as Buddha Dharma and Dharmavinaya (), is an Indian religion or philosophical tradition based on teachings attributed to the Buddha. It originated in northern India as a -movement in the 5th century BCE, and gra ...
and
Jainism
Jainism ( ), also known as Jain Dharma, is an Indian religions, Indian religion. Jainism traces its spiritual ideas and history through the succession of twenty-four tirthankaras (supreme preachers of ''Dharma''), with the first in the current ...
and conclusions of the other
Vedic schools (
Nyaya
(Sanskrit: न्याय, ''nyā-yá''), literally meaning "justice", "rules", "method" or "judgment",[Vaisheshika
Vaisheshika or Vaiśeṣika ( sa, वैशेषिक) is one of the six schools of Indian philosophy (Vedic systems) from ancient India. In its early stages, the Vaiśeṣika was an independent philosophy with its own metaphysics, epistemolog ...]
,
Samkhya
''Samkhya'' or ''Sankya'' (; Sanskrit सांख्य), IAST: ') is a Dualism (Indian philosophy), dualistic Āstika and nāstika, school of Indian philosophy. It views reality as composed of two independent principles, ''purusha, puruṣa' ...
,
Yoga
Yoga (; sa, योग, lit=yoke' or 'union ) is a group of physical, mental, and spiritual practices or disciplines which originated in ancient India and aim to control (yoke) and still the mind, recognizing a detached witness-consciou ...
, and, to some extent, the
Purva Mimamsa
The Fourteen Purva translated as ancient or prior knowledge, are a large body of Jain scriptures that was preached by all Tirthankaras (omniscient teachers) of Jainism encompassing the entire gamut of knowledge available in this universe. The pers ...
).
Scripture
The main ''
Upaniṣhads'', the ''
Bhagavadgītā
The Bhagavad Gita (; sa, श्रीमद्भगवद्गीता, lit=The Song by God, translit=śrīmadbhagavadgītā;), often referred to as the Gita (), is a 700- verse Hindu scripture that is part of the epic ''Mahabharata'' (c ...
'' and the ''
Brahma Sūtras'' are the foundational scriptures in Vedanta. All schools of Vedanta propound their philosophy by interpreting these texts, collectively called the ''
Prasthānatrayī
Prasthanatrayi ( sa, प्रस्थानत्रयी, IAST: ), literally, ''three sources (or axioms)'', refers to the three canonical texts of theology having epistemic authority, especially of the Vedanta schools. It consists of:
# The ...
'', literally, ''three sources''.
# The ''
Upaniṣads'', or ''Śruti prasthāna''; considered the ''
Sruti'', the "heard" (and repeated) foundation of Vedanta.
# The ''
Brahma Sūtras'', or ''Nyaya prasthana'' / ''Yukti prasthana''; considered the reason-based foundation of Vedanta.
# The ''
Bhagavadgītā
The Bhagavad Gita (; sa, श्रीमद्भगवद्गीता, lit=The Song by God, translit=śrīmadbhagavadgītā;), often referred to as the Gita (), is a 700- verse Hindu scripture that is part of the epic ''Mahabharata'' (c ...
'', or ''Smriti prasthāna''; considered the ''
Smriti
''Smriti'' ( sa, स्मृति, IAST: '), literally "that which is remembered" are a body of Hindu texts usually attributed to an author, traditionally written down, in contrast to Śrutis (the Vedic literature) considered authorless, that ...
'' (remembered tradition) foundation of Vedanta.
All major Vedantic teachers, including
Shankara,
Bhaskara,
Ramanuja
Ramanuja (Middle Tamil: Rāmāṉujam; Classical Sanskrit: Rāmanuja; 1017 CE – 1137 CE; ; ), also known as Ramanujacharya, was an Indian Hindu philosopher, guru and a social reformer. He is noted to be one of the most important exponents o ...
,
Madhva
Madhvacharya (; ; CE 1199-1278 or CE 1238–1317), sometimes anglicised as Madhva Acharya, and also known as Purna Prajna () and Ānanda Tīrtha, was an Indian philosopher, theologian and the chief proponent of the '' Dvaita'' (dualism) sch ...
,
Nimbarka
Nimbarkacharya ( sa, निम्बार्काचार्य, Nimbārkāchārya) ( 1130 – 1200), also known as Nimbarka, Nimbaditya or Niyamananda, was a Hindu philosopher, theologian and the chief proponent of the theology of Dvaita ...
, and
Vallabha
Vallabhacharya Mahaprabhu (1479–1531 CE), also known as Vallabha, Mahaprabhuji and Vishnuswami, or Vallabha Acharya, is a Hindu Indian saint and philosopher who founded the Krishna-centered PushtiMarg sect of Vaishnavism in the Braj(Vraj) ...
composed commentaries on these three sources. The
''Brahma Sūtras'' of ''
Badarayana'' contain a synthesis of the teachings of the
''Upaniṣads'', which contain a many diverse doctrines and teachings. Other such Vedantic syntheses may have existed, but only the ''Brahma Sūtras'' survive. The
''Bhagavadgītā'', due to its syncretism of
Samkhya
''Samkhya'' or ''Sankya'' (; Sanskrit सांख्य), IAST: ') is a Dualism (Indian philosophy), dualistic Āstika and nāstika, school of Indian philosophy. It views reality as composed of two independent principles, ''purusha, puruṣa' ...
,
Yoga
Yoga (; sa, योग, lit=yoke' or 'union ) is a group of physical, mental, and spiritual practices or disciplines which originated in ancient India and aim to control (yoke) and still the mind, recognizing a detached witness-consciou ...
, and
Upanishad
The Upanishads (; sa, उपनिषद् ) are late Vedic Sanskrit texts that supplied the basis of later Hindu philosophy.Wendy Doniger (1990), ''Textual Sources for the Study of Hinduism'', 1st Edition, University of Chicago Press, , ...
ic thought, has also played a major role in Vedantic thought.
All Vedāntins agree that scripture (śruti) is the only means of knowing (pramāṇa) regarding spiritual matters (which are beyond perception and inference).
[Bartley, Christopher (2015). ''An Introduction to Indian Philosophy'' ''Hindu and Buddhist Ideas from Original Sources'', p. 176. Bloomsbury Academic.
] This is explained by
Rāmānuja as follows:
A theory that rests exclusively on human concepts may at some other time or place be refuted by arguments devised by cleverer people.... The conclusion is that with regard to supernatural matters, Scripture alone is the epistemic authority and that reasoning is to be used only in support of Scripture’ rī Bhāṣya 2.1.12
For specific sub-schools of Vedanta, other texts may be equally important. For example, for Advaita Vedanta, the works of
Adi Shankara
Adi Shankara ("first Shankara," to distinguish him from other Shankaras)(8th cent. CE), also called Adi Shankaracharya ( sa, आदि शङ्कर, आदि शङ्कराचार्य, Ādi Śaṅkarācāryaḥ, lit=First Shanka ...
are central. For the Theistic
Vaishnava
Vaishnavism ( sa, वैष्णवसम्प्रदायः, Vaiṣṇavasampradāyaḥ) is one of the major Hindu denominations along with Shaivism, Shaktism, and Smartism. It is also called Vishnuism since it considers Vishnu as the ...
schools of Vedanta, the ''
Bhāgavata Purāṇa
The ''Bhagavata Purana'' ( sa, भागवतपुराण; ), also known as the ''Srimad Bhagavatam'', ''Srimad Bhagavata Mahapurana'' or simply ''Bhagavata'', is one of Hinduism's eighteen great Puranas (''Mahapuranas''). Composed in Sa ...
'' is particularly important. The ''Bhāgavata Purāṇa'' is one of the most widely commented upon works in Vedanta. This text is so central to the Krishna centered Vedanta schools that the Vedantin theologian
Vallabha
Vallabhacharya Mahaprabhu (1479–1531 CE), also known as Vallabha, Mahaprabhuji and Vishnuswami, or Vallabha Acharya, is a Hindu Indian saint and philosopher who founded the Krishna-centered PushtiMarg sect of Vaishnavism in the Braj(Vraj) ...
added the Bhāgavata Purāṇa as a fourth text to the praṣṭhāna traya (three classic scriptures of Vedanta).
Metaphysics
Vedanta philosophies discuss three fundamental metaphysical categories and the relations between the three.
# ''
Brahman
In Hinduism, ''Brahman'' ( sa, ब्रह्मन्) connotes the highest universal principle, the ultimate reality in the universe.P. T. Raju (2006), ''Idealistic Thought of India'', Routledge, , page 426 and Conclusion chapter part X ...
'' or ''
Ishvara
''Ishvara'' () is a concept in Hinduism, with a wide range of meanings that depend on the era and the school of Hinduism.Monier Monier Williams, Sanskrit-English dictionarySearch for Izvara University of Cologne, Germany In ancient texts of H ...
'': the ultimate reality
# ''
Ātman'' or ''
Jivātman'': the individual soul, self
# ''
Prakriti''/''Jagat'':
the empirical world, ever-changing physical universe, body and matter
Brahman / Ishvara – Conceptions of the Supreme Reality
Shankara, in formulating Advaita, talks of two conceptions of ''Brahman'': The higher ''Brahman'' as undifferentiated Being, and a lower ''Brahman'' endowed with qualities as the creator of the universe.
* ''Parā'' or Higher ''Brahman'': The undifferentiated, absolute, infinite, transcendental, supra-relational Brahman beyond all thought and speech is defined as ''parā'' ''Brahman'', ''nirviśeṣa'' Brahman or ''nirguṇa'' Brahman and is the Absolute of metaphysics.
* ''Aparā'' or Lower ''Brahman'': The ''
Brahman
In Hinduism, ''Brahman'' ( sa, ब्रह्मन्) connotes the highest universal principle, the ultimate reality in the universe.P. T. Raju (2006), ''Idealistic Thought of India'', Routledge, , page 426 and Conclusion chapter part X ...
'' with qualities defined as ''aparā'' ''Brahman'' or ''saguṇa'' ''Brahman''. The ''saguṇa'' ''Brahman'' is endowed with attributes and represents the personal God of religion.
Ramanuja, in formulating Vishishtadvaita Vedanta, rejects ''nirguṇa'' – that the undifferentiated Absolute is inconceivable – and adopts a theistic interpretation of the ''Upanishads'', accepts ''Brahman'' as ''Ishvara'', the personal God who is the seat of all auspicious attributes, as the One reality. The God of Vishishtadvaita is accessible to the devotee, yet remains the Absolute, with differentiated attributes.
Madhva, in expounding Dvaita philosophy, maintains that ''
Vishnu
Vishnu ( ; , ), also known as Narayana and Hari, is one of the principal deities of Hinduism. He is the supreme being within Vaishnavism, one of the major traditions within contemporary Hinduism.
Vishnu is known as "The Preserver" within t ...
'' is the supreme God, thus identifying the ''Brahman'', or absolute reality, of the ''Upanishads'' with a personal god, as Ramanuja had done before him. Nimbarka, in his dvaitadvata philosophy, accepted the ''Brahman'' both as ''nirguṇa'' and as ''saguṇa''. Vallabha, in his shuddhadvaita philosophy, not only accepts the triple ontological essence of the ''Brahman'', but also His manifestation as personal God (''Ishvara''), as matter and as individual souls.
Relation between Brahman and Jiva / Atman
The schools of Vedanta differ in their conception of the relation they see between ''Ātman'' / ''Jivātman'' and ''Brahman'' / ''Ishvara'':
* According to Advaita Vedanta, ''Ātman'' is identical with ''Brahman'' and there is no difference.
* According to Vishishtadvaita, ''Jīvātman'' is different from ''Ishvara'', though eternally connected with Him as His mode. The oneness of the Supreme Reality is understood in the sense of an organic unity (''vishistaikya''). ''Brahman'' / ''Ishvara'' alone, as organically related to all ''Jīvātman'' and the material universe is the one Ultimate Reality.
* According to Dvaita, the ''Jīvātman'' is totally and always different from ''Brahman'' / ''Ishvara''.
* According to Shuddhadvaita (pure monism), the ''Jīvātman'' and ''Brahman'' are identical; both, along with the changing empirically observed universe being
Krishna
Krishna (; sa, कृष्ण ) is a major deity in Hinduism. He is worshipped as the eighth avatar of Vishnu and also as the Supreme god in his own right. He is the god of protection, compassion, tenderness, and love; and is one ...
.
Epistemology
Pramana
''Pramāṇa'' (
Sanskrit
Sanskrit (; attributively , ; nominally , , ) is a classical language belonging to the Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European languages. It arose in South Asia after its predecessor languages had diffused there from the northwest in the late ...
: प्रमाण) literally means "proof", "that which is the means of valid knowledge". It refers to
epistemology
Epistemology (; ), or the theory of knowledge, is the branch of philosophy concerned with knowledge. Epistemology is considered a major subfield of philosophy, along with other major subfields such as ethics, logic, and metaphysics.
Episte ...
in Indian philosophies, and encompasses the study of reliable and valid means by which human beings gain accurate, true knowledge. The focus of
Pramana
''Pramana'' (Sanskrit: प्रमाण, ) literally means " proof" and "means of knowledge".[Upamāṇa
''Upamāṇa'' (Sanskrit: "comparison"), ''upamana'' in Hinduism
Hinduism () is an Indian religion or '' dharma'', a religious and universal order or way of life by which followers abide. As a religion, it is the world's third-largest ...]
'' (comparison and analogy)
# ''Arthāpatti'' (postulation, derivation from circumstances)
# ''Anupalabdi'' (non-perception, negative/cognitive proof)
# ''
Śabda
''Shabda'' ( sa, शब्द, ), is the Sanskrit word for "speech sound". In Sanskrit grammar, the term refers to an utterance in the sense of linguistic performance.
History
In classical Indian philosophy of language, the grammarian Katyayan ...
'' (scriptural testimony/ verbal testimony of past or present reliable experts).
The different schools of Vedanta have historically disagreed as to which of the six are epistemologically valid. For example, while Advaita Vedanta accepts all six ''pramanas'', Vishishtadvaita and Dvaita accept only three ''pramanas'' (perception, inference and testimony).
Advaita considers ''Pratyakṣa'' (perception) as the most reliable source of knowledge, and ''
Śabda
''Shabda'' ( sa, शब्द, ), is the Sanskrit word for "speech sound". In Sanskrit grammar, the term refers to an utterance in the sense of linguistic performance.
History
In classical Indian philosophy of language, the grammarian Katyayan ...
'', the scriptural evidence, is considered secondary except for matters related to Brahman, where it is the only evidence. In Vishistadvaita and Dvaita, ''
Śabda
''Shabda'' ( sa, शब्द, ), is the Sanskrit word for "speech sound". In Sanskrit grammar, the term refers to an utterance in the sense of linguistic performance.
History
In classical Indian philosophy of language, the grammarian Katyayan ...
'', the scriptural testimony, is considered the most authentic means of knowledge instead.
Theories of cause and effect
All schools of Vedanta subscribe to the theory of ''Satkāryavāda'', which means that the effect is pre-existent in the cause. But there are two different views on the status of the "effect", that is, the world. Most schools of Vedanta, as well as Samkhya, support ''
Parinamavada'', the idea that the world is a real transformation (''parinama'') of Brahman. According to , "the ''Brahma Sutras'' espouse the realist Parinamavada position, which appears to have been the view most common among early Vedantins". In contrast to Badarayana, Adi Shankara and Advaita Vedantists hold a different view, ''
Vivartavada
Vivartavada is an Advaita Vedanta theory of causation, postulated by post-Shankara Advaita advaitins, regarding the universe as an "illusory transformation" of Brahman.
Etymology
The Sanskrit word ''vivarta'' (विवर्त) means alteration, ...
'', which says that the effect, the world, is merely an unreal (''vivarta'') transformation of its cause, Brahman.
Overview of the main schools of Vedanta
The ''Upanishads'' present an associative philosophical inquiry in the form of identifying various doctrines and then presenting arguments for or against them. They form the basic texts and Vedanta interprets them through rigorous philosophical
exegesis
Exegesis ( ; from the Ancient Greek, Greek , from , "to lead out") is a critical explanation or interpretation (logic), interpretation of a text. The term is traditionally applied to the interpretation of Bible, Biblical works. In modern usage, ...
to defend the point of view of their specific ''sampradaya''. Varying interpretations of the ''Upanishads'' and their synthesis, the ''
Brahma Sutras
The ''Brahma Sūtras'' ( sa, ब्रह्मसूत्राणि) is a Sanskrit text, attributed to the sage bādarāyaṇa or sage Vyāsa, estimated to have been completed in its surviving form in approx. 400–450 CE,, Quote: "...we can ...
'', led to the development of different schools of Vedanta over time.
Vinayak Sakaram Ghate of
Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute
The Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute (BORI) is located in Pune, Maharashtra, India. It was founded on 6 July 1917 and named after Ramakrishna Gopal Bhandarkar (1837–1925), long regarded as the founder of Indology (Orientalism) in Indi ...
has done a comparative analysis of the Brahma Sutra commentaries of
Nimbarka
Nimbarkacharya ( sa, निम्बार्काचार्य, Nimbārkāchārya) ( 1130 – 1200), also known as Nimbarka, Nimbaditya or Niyamananda, was a Hindu philosopher, theologian and the chief proponent of the theology of Dvaita ...
,
Ramanuja
Ramanuja (Middle Tamil: Rāmāṉujam; Classical Sanskrit: Rāmanuja; 1017 CE – 1137 CE; ; ), also known as Ramanujacharya, was an Indian Hindu philosopher, guru and a social reformer. He is noted to be one of the most important exponents o ...
,
Vallabha
Vallabhacharya Mahaprabhu (1479–1531 CE), also known as Vallabha, Mahaprabhuji and Vishnuswami, or Vallabha Acharya, is a Hindu Indian saint and philosopher who founded the Krishna-centered PushtiMarg sect of Vaishnavism in the Braj(Vraj) ...
,
Adi Shankara
Adi Shankara ("first Shankara," to distinguish him from other Shankaras)(8th cent. CE), also called Adi Shankaracharya ( sa, आदि शङ्कर, आदि शङ्कराचार्य, Ādi Śaṅkarācāryaḥ, lit=First Shanka ...
and
Madhvacharya
Madhvacharya (; ; CE 1199-1278 or CE 1238–1317), sometimes Anglicisation, anglicised as Madhva Acharya, and also known as Purna Prajna () and Ānanda Tīrtha, was an Indian philosopher, theologian and the chief proponent of the ''Dvaita'' ...
in detail and has written the conclusion that Nimbarka's and Ramanuja's balanced commentaries give the closest meaning of the
Brahma_Sutras
The ''Brahma Sūtras'' ( sa, ब्रह्मसूत्राणि) is a Sanskrit text, attributed to the sage bādarāyaṇa or sage Vyāsa, estimated to have been completed in its surviving form in approx. 400–450 CE,, Quote: "...we can ...
taking into account of both kinds of Sutras, those which speak of oneness and those which speak of difference. According to Gavin Flood, while Advaita Vedanta is the "most famous" school of Vedanta, and "often, mistakenly, taken to be the only representative of Vedantic thought," and Shankara a Saivite, "Vedanta is essentially a Vaisnava theological articulation," a discourse broadly within the parameters of Vaisnavism." Within the Vaishnava traditions four ''sampradays'' have special status, while different scholars have classified the Vedanta schools ranging from three to six
as prominent ones.
# ''
Bhedabheda
Bhedābheda Vedānta is a subschool of Vedānta, which teaches that the individual self (''jīvātman'') is both different and not different from the ultimate reality known as Brahman.
Etymology
''Bhedābheda'' (Devanagari: ) is a Sanskrit wor ...
'', as early as the 7th century CE, or even the 4th century CE. Some scholars are inclined to consider it as a "tradition" rather than a school of Vedanta.
#* ''
Dvaitādvaita
The Nimbarka Sampradaya (IAST: ''Nimbārka Sampradāya'', Sanskrit निम्बार्क सम्प्रदाय), also known as the Hamsa Sampradāya, and Sanakādi Sampradāya (सनकादि सम्प्रदाय), is ...
'' or ''Svabhavikabhedabheda'' (Vaishnava), founded by
Nimbarka
Nimbarkacharya ( sa, निम्बार्काचार्य, Nimbārkāchārya) ( 1130 – 1200), also known as Nimbarka, Nimbaditya or Niyamananda, was a Hindu philosopher, theologian and the chief proponent of the theology of Dvaita ...
in the 7th century CE
#* ''
Achintya Bheda Abheda
Achintya-Bheda-Abheda (अचिन्त्यभेदाभेद, ' in IAST) is a school of Vedanta representing the philosophy of ''inconceivable one-ness and difference''.pp. 47-52 In Sanskrit ''achintya'' means 'inconceivable', ''bheda ...
'' (Vaishnava), founded by
Chaitanya Mahaprabhu
Chaitanya Mahaprabhu (; born Vishvambhar Mishra) was a 15th-century Indian saint who is considered to be the combined avatar of Radha and Krishna by his disciples and various scriptures. Chaitanya Mahaprabhu's mode of worshipping Krishna ...
(1486–1534 CE), propagated by
Gaudiya Vaishnava
Gaudiya Vaishnavism (), also known as Chaitanya Vaishnavism, is a Vaishnava Hindu religious movement inspired by Chaitanya Mahaprabhu (1486–1534) in India. "Gaudiya" refers to the Gaura or Gauḍa region of Bengal, with Vaishnavism meanin ...
#
''Advaita'' (monistic), many scholars of which most prominent are
Gaudapada
Gauḍapāda (Sanskrit: गौडपाद; ), also referred as Gauḍapādācārya ("Gauḍapāda the Teacher"), was an early medieval era Hindu philosopher and scholar of the ''Advaita'' Vedanta school of Hindu philosophy. While details o ...
(~500 CE) and
Adi Shankaracharya
Adi Shankara ("first Shankara," to distinguish him from other Shankaras)(8th cent. CE), also called Adi Shankaracharya ( sa, आदि शङ्कर, आदि शङ्कराचार्य, Ādi Śaṅkarācāryaḥ, lit=First Shanka ...
(8th century CE)
# ''
Vishishtadvaita
Vishishtadvaita (IAST '; sa, विशिष्टाद्वैत) is one of the most popular schools of the Vedanta school of Hindu philosophy. Vedanta literally means the in depth meaning ''of the Vedas.'' ''Vishisht Advaita'' (literall ...
'' (Vaishnava), prominent scholars are
Nathamuni
Nathamuni, also known as Sri Ranganathamuni, (823 CE – 951 CE), was a Sri Vaishnava, Vaishnava theologian who collected and compiled the Divya Prabandha, Naalayira Divya Prabandham.
Srinivasa Chari, S. M. (1994). Vaiṣṇavism, p.22-24. Mot ...
,
Yāmuna and
Ramanuja
Ramanuja (Middle Tamil: Rāmāṉujam; Classical Sanskrit: Rāmanuja; 1017 CE – 1137 CE; ; ), also known as Ramanujacharya, was an Indian Hindu philosopher, guru and a social reformer. He is noted to be one of the most important exponents o ...
(1017–1137 CE)
#* ''
Akshar-Purushottam Darshan
Akshar-Purushottam Darshan (''Akṣara-Puruṣottama Darśana'') or Aksarabrahma-Parabrahma-Darsanam, "Akshar-Purushottam philosophy," is a designation used by BAPS-swamis as an alternative name for the Swaminarayan Darshana, Swaminarayan's view ...
'', based on the teachings of
Swaminarayan
Swaminarayan (IAST: ', 3 April 1781 – 1 June 1830), also known as Sahajanand Swami, was a yogi and Asceticism, ascetic, who is believed by followers to be a manifestation of God Krishna, or as the highest Theophany, manifestation of ...
(1781-1830 CE) and rooted in Ramanuja's ''Vishishtadvaita''; propagated most notably by
BAPS
Bochasanwasi Akshar Purushottam Swaminarayan Sanstha (BAPS; ) is a Hindu denomination within the Swaminarayan Sampradaya. It was formed in 1905 by Yagnapurushdas (Shastriji Maharaj) following his conviction that Swaminarayan remained present o ...
# ''
Tattvavada
Dvaita Vedanta (); (originally known as Tattvavada; IAST:Tattvavāda), is a sub-school in the Vedanta tradition of Hindu philosophy. The term Tattvavada literally means "arguments from a realist viewpoint". The Tattvavada (Dvaita) Vedanta sub ...
(
Dvaita
Dvaita Vedanta (); (originally known as Tattvavada; IAST:Tattvavāda), is a sub-school in the Vedanta tradition of Hindu philosophy. The term Tattvavada literally means "arguments from a realist viewpoint". The Tattvavada (Dvaita) Vedanta su ...
)'' (Vaishnava), founded by
Madhvacharya
Madhvacharya (; ; CE 1199-1278 or CE 1238–1317), sometimes Anglicisation, anglicised as Madhva Acharya, and also known as Purna Prajna () and Ānanda Tīrtha, was an Indian philosopher, theologian and the chief proponent of the ''Dvaita'' ...
(1199–1278 CE). The prominent scholars are
Jayatirtha
Sri Jayatirtha (), ''also known as'' Teekacharya () (1345 - 1388), was a Hindu philosopher, dialectician, polemicist and the sixth pontiff of Madhvacharya Peetha from (1365 – 1388). He is considered to be one of the most important seers in ...
(1345-1388 CE), and
Vyasatirtha
Vyāsatīrtha (. 1460 – 1539), also called ''Vyasaraja'' or ''Chandrikacharya'', was a Hindu philosopher, scholar, polemicist, commentator and poet belonging to the Madhwacharya's Dvaita order of Vedanta. As the patron saint of the Vijay ...
(1460–1539 CE)
# ''
Suddhadvaita
Shuddadvaita (Sanskrit: "pure non-dualism") is the "purely non-dual" philosophy propounded by Vallabhacharya (1479-1531 CE), the founding philosopher and guru of the ("tradition of Vallabh") or ("The path of grace"), a Hindu Vaishnava tradit ...
'' (Vaishnava), founded by
Vallabha
Vallabhacharya Mahaprabhu (1479–1531 CE), also known as Vallabha, Mahaprabhuji and Vishnuswami, or Vallabha Acharya, is a Hindu Indian saint and philosopher who founded the Krishna-centered PushtiMarg sect of Vaishnavism in the Braj(Vraj) ...
(1479–1531 CE)
Bhedabheda Vedanta (difference and non-difference)
Bhedābheda means "difference and non-difference" and is more a tradition than a school of Vedanta. The schools of this tradition emphasize that the individual self (''Jīvatman'') is both different and not different from ''Brahman''. Notable figures in this school are Bhartriprapancha,
Nimbārka
The Nimbarka Sampradaya ( IAST: ''Nimbārka Sampradāya'', Sanskrit निम्बार्क सम्प्रदाय), also known as the Hamsa Sampradāya, and Sanakādi Sampradāya (सनकादि सम्प्रदाय), i ...
(7th century) who founded the
Dvaitadvaita
The Nimbarka Sampradaya ( IAST: ''Nimbārka Sampradāya'', Sanskrit निम्बार्क सम्प्रदाय), also known as the Hamsa Sampradāya, and Sanakādi Sampradāya (सनकादि सम्प्रदाय), i ...
school,
Bhāskara (8th–9th century), Ramanuja's teacher
Yādavaprakāśa
Yadava Prakasa () was a Bhedabheda Vedanta scholar and a contemporary of Vaishnava acharya Ramanuja. He was one of the teachers of Ramanuja during the latter's early years in Kanchi. It is said that Ramanuja joined Yadava Prakaasa's school while ...
,
Chaitanya (1486–1534) who founded the
Achintya Bheda Abheda
Achintya-Bheda-Abheda (अचिन्त्यभेदाभेद, ' in IAST) is a school of Vedanta representing the philosophy of ''inconceivable one-ness and difference''.pp. 47-52 In Sanskrit ''achintya'' means 'inconceivable', ''bheda ...
school, and
Vijñānabhikṣu
Vijñānabhikṣu (also spelled ''Vijnanabhikshu'') was a Hindu philosopher from Bihar, variously dated to the 15th or 16th century, known for his commentary on various schools of Hindu philosophy, particularly the Yoga text of Patanjali. His scho ...
(16th century).
Dvaitādvaita Vedanta
Nimbārka
The Nimbarka Sampradaya ( IAST: ''Nimbārka Sampradāya'', Sanskrit निम्बार्क सम्प्रदाय), also known as the Hamsa Sampradāya, and Sanakādi Sampradāya (सनकादि सम्प्रदाय), i ...
(7th century) sometimes identified with
Bhāskara,
propounded ''
Dvaitādvaita
The Nimbarka Sampradaya (IAST: ''Nimbārka Sampradāya'', Sanskrit निम्बार्क सम्प्रदाय), also known as the Hamsa Sampradāya, and Sanakādi Sampradāya (सनकादि सम्प्रदाय), is ...
''. ''Brahman'' (God), souls ''(chit)'' and matter or the universe ''(achit)'' are considered as three equally real and co-eternal realities. ''Brahman'' is the controller ''(niyanta)'', the soul is the enjoyer ''(bhokta)'', and the material universe is the object enjoyed ''(bhogya)''. The Brahman is ''
Krishna
Krishna (; sa, कृष्ण ) is a major deity in Hinduism. He is worshipped as the eighth avatar of Vishnu and also as the Supreme god in his own right. He is the god of protection, compassion, tenderness, and love; and is one ...
'', the ultimate cause who is omniscient, omnipotent, all-pervading Being. He is the
efficient cause
The four causes or four explanations are, in Aristotelian thought, four fundamental types of answer to the question "why?", in analysis of change or movement in nature: the material, the formal, the efficient, and the final. Aristotle wrote th ...
of the universe because, as Lord of ''Karma'' and internal ruler of souls, He brings about creation so that the souls can reap the consequences of their ''karma''. God is considered to be the
material cause
The four causes or four explanations are, in Aristotelian thought, four fundamental types of answer to the question "why?", in analysis of change or movement in nature: the material, the formal, the efficient, and the final. Aristotle wrote th ...
of the universe because creation was a manifestation of His powers of soul ''(chit)'' and matter ''(achit)''; creation is a transformation ''(parinama)'' of God's powers. He can be realized only through a constant effort to merge oneself with His nature through meditation and devotion.
Achintya-Bheda-Abheda Vedanta
Chaitanya Mahaprabhu
Chaitanya Mahaprabhu (; born Vishvambhar Mishra) was a 15th-century Indian saint who is considered to be the combined avatar of Radha and Krishna by his disciples and various scriptures. Chaitanya Mahaprabhu's mode of worshipping Krishna ...
(1486 – 1533) was the prime exponent of ''Achintya-Bheda-Abheda''. In
Sanskrit
Sanskrit (; attributively , ; nominally , , ) is a classical language belonging to the Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European languages. It arose in South Asia after its predecessor languages had diffused there from the northwest in the late ...
''achintya'' means 'inconceivable'. ''Achintya-Bheda-Abheda'' represents the philosophy of "inconceivable difference in non-difference", in relation to the non-dual reality of ''Brahman''-''Atman'' which it calls (''
Krishna
Krishna (; sa, कृष्ण ) is a major deity in Hinduism. He is worshipped as the eighth avatar of Vishnu and also as the Supreme god in his own right. He is the god of protection, compassion, tenderness, and love; and is one ...
''), ''svayam bhagavan''. The notion of "inconceivability" (''acintyatva'') is used to reconcile apparently contradictory notions in Upanishadic teachings. This school asserts that ''Krishna'' is ''
Bhagavan
Bhagavan ( sa, भगवान्, Bhagavān; pi, Bhagavā, italics=yes), also spelt Bhagwan (sometimes translated in English as "Lord"), is an epithet within Indian religions used to denote figures of religious worship. In Hinduism it is us ...
'' of the ''bhakti yogins'', the ''Brahman'' of the ''jnana yogins'', and has a divine potency that is inconceivable. He is all-pervading and thus in all parts of the universe (non-difference), yet he is inconceivably more (difference). This school is at the foundation of the ''
Gaudiya Vaishnava
Gaudiya Vaishnavism (), also known as Chaitanya Vaishnavism, is a Vaishnava Hindu religious movement inspired by Chaitanya Mahaprabhu (1486–1534) in India. "Gaudiya" refers to the Gaura or Gauḍa region of Bengal, with Vaishnavism meanin ...
'' religious tradition. The
ISKCON
The International Society for Krishna Consciousness (ISKCON), known colloquially as the Hare Krishna movement or Hare Krishnas, is a Gaudiya Vaishnava Hindu religious organization. ISKCON was founded in 1966 in New York City by A. C. Bhaktive ...
or the Hare Krishnas also affiliate to this school of Vedanta Philosophy.
Advaita Vedanta (non-dualism)
![Raja Ravi Varma - Sankaracharya](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e3/Raja_Ravi_Varma_-_Sankaracharya.jpg)
Advaita Vedanta (
IAST
The International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration (IAST) is a transliteration scheme that allows the lossless romanisation of Indic scripts as employed by Sanskrit and related Indic languages. It is based on a scheme that emerged during ...
';
Sanskrit
Sanskrit (; attributively , ; nominally , , ) is a classical language belonging to the Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European languages. It arose in South Asia after its predecessor languages had diffused there from the northwest in the late ...
: अद्वैत वेदान्त), propounded by
Gaudapada
Gauḍapāda (Sanskrit: गौडपाद; ), also referred as Gauḍapādācārya ("Gauḍapāda the Teacher"), was an early medieval era Hindu philosopher and scholar of the ''Advaita'' Vedanta school of Hindu philosophy. While details o ...
(7th century) and
Adi Shankara
Adi Shankara ("first Shankara," to distinguish him from other Shankaras)(8th cent. CE), also called Adi Shankaracharya ( sa, आदि शङ्कर, आदि शङ्कराचार्य, Ādi Śaṅkarācāryaḥ, lit=First Shanka ...
(8th century), espouses non-dualism and monism. ''Brahman'' is held to be the sole unchanging metaphysical reality and identical to the individual ''Atman''. The physical world, on the other hand, is always-changing empirical
''Maya''. The absolute and infinite ''Atman''-''Brahman'' is realized by a process of negating everything relative, finite, empirical and changing.
The school accepts no duality, no limited individual souls (''Atman'' / ''Jivatman''), and no separate unlimited cosmic soul. All souls and their existence across space and time are considered to be the same oneness. Spiritual liberation in ''Advaita'' is the full comprehension and realization of oneness, that one's unchanging ''Atman'' (soul) is the same as the ''Atman'' in everyone else, as well as being identical to ''Brahman''.
Vishishtadvaita Vedanta (qualified non-dualism)
![Ramanuja embracing Lord Varadaraj](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8c/Ramanuja_embracing_Lord_Varadaraj.jpg)
''Vishishtadvaita'', propounded by
Ramanuja
Ramanuja (Middle Tamil: Rāmāṉujam; Classical Sanskrit: Rāmanuja; 1017 CE – 1137 CE; ; ), also known as Ramanujacharya, was an Indian Hindu philosopher, guru and a social reformer. He is noted to be one of the most important exponents o ...
(11–12th century), asserts that ''Jivatman'' (human souls) and ''Brahman'' (as ''Vishnu'') are different, a difference that is never transcended. With this qualification, Ramanuja also affirmed monism by saying that there is unity of all souls and that the individual soul has the potential to realize identity with the ''Brahman''.
''Vishishtadvaita'', like ''Advaita'', is a non-dualistic school of Vedanta in a qualified way, and both begin by assuming that all souls can hope for and achieve the state of blissful liberation. On the relation between the ''Brahman'' and the world of matter (''Prakriti''), ''Vishishtadvaita'' states both are two different absolutes, both metaphysically true and real, neither is false or illusive, and that ''saguna'' ''Brahman'' with attributes is also real. Ramanuja states that God, like man, has both soul and body, and the world of matter is the glory of God's body. The path to ''Brahman'' (''Vishnu''), according to Ramanuja, is devotion to godliness and constant remembrance of the beauty and love of the personal god (''
bhakti
''Bhakti'' ( sa, भक्ति) literally means "attachment, participation, fondness for, homage, faith, love, devotion, worship, purity".See Monier-Williams, ''Sanskrit Dictionary'', 1899. It was originally used in Hinduism, referring to d ...
'' of ''saguna'' ''Brahman'').
Swaminarayan Darshana
![Lord Swaminarayan writing the Shikshapatri](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d5/Lord_Swaminarayan_writing_the_Shikshapatri.jpg)
The Swaminarayan Darshana, also called Akshar Purushottam Darshan by the BAPS, was propounded by Swaminarayan (1781-1830 CE) and is rooted in Ramanuja's ''Vishishtadvaita''. It asserts that Parabrahman (Purushottam, Narayana) and Aksharbrahman are two distinct eternal realities. Adherents believe that they can achieve moksha, or freedom from the cycle of birth and death, by becoming aksharrup (or brahmarup), that is, by attaining qualities similar to Akshar (or Aksharbrahman) and worshipping Purushottam (or Parabrahman; the supreme living entity; God).
Tattvavada Vedanta (Dvaita)(dualism)
![13th century portrait of Jagadguru Shri Madhvacharya in Udupi](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0c/13th_century_portrait_of_Jagadguru_Shri_Madhvacharya_in_Udupi.jpg)
Tattvavada, propounded by
Madhvacharya
Madhvacharya (; ; CE 1199-1278 or CE 1238–1317), sometimes Anglicisation, anglicised as Madhva Acharya, and also known as Purna Prajna () and Ānanda Tīrtha, was an Indian philosopher, theologian and the chief proponent of the ''Dvaita'' ...
(13th century), is based on the premise of realism or realistic point of view. The term Dvaita which means dualism was later applied to Madhvacharya's philosophy. ''Atman'' (soul) and ''Brahman'' (as ''Vishnu'') are understood as two completely different entities. ''Brahman'' is the creator of the universe, perfect in knowledge, perfect in knowing, perfect in its power, and distinct from souls, distinct from matter. In ''Dvaita'' Vedanta, an individual soul must feel attraction, love, attachment and complete devotional surrender to ''Vishnu'' for salvation, and it is only His grace that leads to redemption and salvation. Madhva believed that some souls are eternally doomed and damned, a view not found in ''Advaita'' and ''Vishishtadvaita'' Vedanta. While the ''Vishishtadvaita'' Vedanta asserted "qualitative monism and quantitative pluralism of souls", Madhva asserted both "qualitative and quantitative pluralism of souls".
Shuddhādvaita Vedanta (pure nondualism)
Shuddhadvaita
Shuddadvaita (Sanskrit: "pure non-dualism") is the "purely non-dual" philosophy propounded by Vallabhacharya (1479-1531 CE), the founding philosopher and guru of the ("tradition of Vallabh") or ("The path of grace"), a Hindu Vaishnava tradit ...
(pure non-dualism), propounded by
Vallabhacharya
Vallabhacharya Mahaprabhu (1479–1531 CE), also known as Vallabha, Mahaprabhuji and Vishnuswami, or Vallabha Acharya, is a Hindu Indian saint and philosopher who founded the Krishna-centered PushtiMarg sect of Vaishnavism in the Braj(Vraj) ...
(1479–1531 CE), states that the entire universe is real and is subtly ''
Brahman
In Hinduism, ''Brahman'' ( sa, ब्रह्मन्) connotes the highest universal principle, the ultimate reality in the universe.P. T. Raju (2006), ''Idealistic Thought of India'', Routledge, , page 426 and Conclusion chapter part X ...
'' only in the form of ''
Krishna
Krishna (; sa, कृष्ण ) is a major deity in Hinduism. He is worshipped as the eighth avatar of Vishnu and also as the Supreme god in his own right. He is the god of protection, compassion, tenderness, and love; and is one ...
''. Vallabhacharya agreed with Advaita Vedanta's
ontology
In metaphysics, ontology is the philosophical study of being, as well as related concepts such as existence, becoming, and reality.
Ontology addresses questions like how entities are grouped into categories and which of these entities exis ...
, but emphasized that ''prakriti'' (empirical world, body) is not separate from the ''Brahman'', but just another manifestation of the latter. Everything, everyone, everywhere – soul and body, living and non-living, ''jiva'' and matter – is the eternal ''
Krishna
Krishna (; sa, कृष्ण ) is a major deity in Hinduism. He is worshipped as the eighth avatar of Vishnu and also as the Supreme god in his own right. He is the god of protection, compassion, tenderness, and love; and is one ...
''. The way to ''Krishna'', in this school, is ''
bhakti
''Bhakti'' ( sa, भक्ति) literally means "attachment, participation, fondness for, homage, faith, love, devotion, worship, purity".See Monier-Williams, ''Sanskrit Dictionary'', 1899. It was originally used in Hinduism, referring to d ...
''. Vallabha opposed renunciation of monistic ''sannyasa'' as ineffective and advocates the path of devotion (''bhakti'') rather than knowledge (''jnana''). The goal of ''bhakti'' is to turn away from ego, self-centered-ness and deception, and to turn towards the eternal ''Krishna'' in everything continually offering freedom from ''
samsara''.
History
The history of Vedanta can be divided into two periods: one prior to the composition of the ''Brahma Sutras'' and the other encompassing the schools that developed after the ''Brahma Sutras'' were written. Until the 11th century, Vedanta was a peripheral school of thought.
Before the ''Brahma Sutras'' (before the 5th century)
Little is known of schools of Vedanta existing before the composition of the ''Brahma Sutras'' (400–450 CE).
[. "... we can take it that 400-450 is the period during which the Brahma-sūtra was compiled in its extant form."] It is clear that Badarayana, the writer of ''Brahma Sutras'', was not the first person to systematize the teachings of the ''Upanishads'', as he quotes six Vedantic teachers before him – Ashmarathya, Badari, Audulomi, Kashakrtsna, Karsnajini and Atreya. References to other early Vedanta teachers – Brahmadatta, Sundara, Pandaya, Tanka and Dravidacharya – are found in secondary literature of later periods. The works of these ancient teachers have not survived, but based on the quotes attributed to them in later literature, Sharma postulates that Ashmarathya and Audulomi were
Bhedabheda
Bhedābheda Vedānta is a subschool of Vedānta, which teaches that the individual self (''jīvātman'') is both different and not different from the ultimate reality known as Brahman.
Etymology
''Bhedābheda'' (Devanagari: ) is a Sanskrit wor ...
scholars, Kashakrtsna and Brahmadatta were
Advaita
''Advaita Vedanta'' (; sa, अद्वैत वेदान्त, ) is a Hindu sādhanā, a path of spiritual discipline and experience, and the oldest extant tradition of the orthodox Hindu school Vedānta. The term ''Advaita'' (lit ...
scholars, while Tanka and Dravidacharya were either Advaita or Vishistadvaita scholars.
''Brahma Sutras'' (completed in the 5th century)
Badarayana summarized and interpreted teachings of the ''Upanishads'' in the ''
Brahma Sutras
The ''Brahma Sūtras'' ( sa, ब्रह्मसूत्राणि) is a Sanskrit text, attributed to the sage bādarāyaṇa or sage Vyāsa, estimated to have been completed in its surviving form in approx. 400–450 CE,, Quote: "...we can ...
'', also called the ''Vedanta Sutra'', possibly "written from a Bhedābheda Vedāntic viewpoint." Badarayana summarized the teachings of the classical Upanishads and refuted the rival philosophical schools in ancient India. The Brahma Sutras laid the basis for the development of Vedanta philosophy.
Though attributed to Badarayana, the Brahma Sutras were likely composed by multiple authors over the course of hundreds of years. The estimates on when the Brahma Sutras were complete vary, with Nakamura in 1989 and Nicholson in his 2013 review stating, that they were most likely compiled in the present form around 400–450 CE.
Isaeva suggests they were complete and in current form by 200 CE, while Nakamura states that "the great part of the ''Sutra'' must have been in existence much earlier than that" (800 - 500 BCE).
The book is composed of four chapters, each divided into four-quarters or sections. These sutras attempt to synthesize the diverse teachings of the Upanishads. However, the cryptic nature of aphorisms of the ''Brahma Sutras'' have required exegetical commentaries. These commentaries have resulted in the formation of numerous Vedanta schools, each interpreting the texts in its own way and producing its own commentary.
Between the ''Brahma Sutras'' and Adi Shankara (5th–8th centuries)
Little with specificity is known of the period between the ''Brahma Sutras'' (5th century CE) and Adi Shankara (8th century CE). Only two writings of this period have survived: the ''Vākyapadīya'', written by
Bhartṛhari
Bhartṛhari (Devanagari: ; also romanised as Bhartrihari; fl. c. 5th century CE) was a Hindu linguistic philosopher to whom are normally ascribed two influential Sanskrit texts:
* the ''Vākyapadīya'', on Sanskrit grammar and linguistic philo ...
(second half 5th century,) and the ''Kārikā'' written by Gaudapada (early 6th or 7th century CE).
Shankara mentions 99 different predecessors of his school in his commentaries. A number of important early Vedanta thinkers have been listed in the ''Siddhitraya'' by Yamunācārya (c. 1050), the ''Vedārthasamgraha'' by Rāmānuja (c. 1050–1157), and the ''Yatīndramatadīpikā'' by Śrīnivāsa Dāsa. At least fourteen thinkers are known to have existed between the composition of the Brahma Sutras and Shankara's lifetime.
A noted scholar of this period was Bhartriprapancha. Bhartriprapancha maintained that the Brahman is one and there is unity, but that this unity has varieties. Scholars see Bhartriprapancha as an early philosopher in the line who teach the tenet of
Bhedabheda
Bhedābheda Vedānta is a subschool of Vedānta, which teaches that the individual self (''jīvātman'') is both different and not different from the ultimate reality known as Brahman.
Etymology
''Bhedābheda'' (Devanagari: ) is a Sanskrit wor ...
.
Gaudapada, Adi Shankara (Advaita Vedanta) (6th–9th centuries)
Influenced by Buddhism, Advaita vedanta departs from the bhedabheda-philosophy, instead postulating the identity of ''Atman'' with the Whole (''Brahman''),
Gaudapada
Gaudapada (c. 6th century CE), was the teacher or a more distant predecessor of
Govindapada, the teacher of Adi Shankara. Shankara is widely considered as the apostle of
Advaita Vedanta
''Advaita Vedanta'' (; sa, अद्वैत वेदान्त, ) is a Hinduism, Hindu sādhanā, a path of spiritual discipline and experience, and the oldest extant tradition of the Āstika and nāstika, orthodox Hindu school Ved ...
. Gaudapada's treatise, the ' – also known as the ' or the ' – is the earliest surviving complete text on Advaita Vedanta.
Gaudapada's ' relied on the
Mandukya
The Māṇḍūkya Upaniṣad ( sa, माण्डूक्य उपनिषद्, ) is the shortest of all the Upanishads, and is assigned to Atharvaveda. It is listed as number 6 in the Muktikā canon of 108 Upanishads.
It is in prose, co ...
,
Brihadaranyaka
The ''Brihadaranyaka Upanishad'' ( sa, बृहदारण्यक उपनिषद्, ) is one of the Principal Upanishads and one of the first Upanishadic scriptures of Hinduism. A key scripture to various schools of Hinduism, the ''Bri ...
and
Chhandogya ''Upanishads''. In the ', Advaita (non-dualism) is established on rational grounds (''upapatti'') independent of scriptural revelation; its arguments are devoid of all religious, mystical or scholastic elements. Scholars are divided on a possible influence of
Buddhism
Buddhism ( , ), also known as Buddha Dharma and Dharmavinaya (), is an Indian religion or philosophical tradition based on teachings attributed to the Buddha. It originated in northern India as a -movement in the 5th century BCE, and gra ...
on Gaudapada's philosophy. The fact that Shankara, in addition to the ''
Brahma Sutras
The ''Brahma Sūtras'' ( sa, ब्रह्मसूत्राणि) is a Sanskrit text, attributed to the sage bādarāyaṇa or sage Vyāsa, estimated to have been completed in its surviving form in approx. 400–450 CE,, Quote: "...we can ...
'', the principal ''Upanishads'' and the ''
Bhagvad Gita
The Bhagavad Gita (; sa, श्रीमद्भगवद्गीता, lit=The Song by God, translit=śrīmadbhagavadgītā;), often referred to as the Gita (), is a 700- verse Hindu scripture that is part of the epic ''Mahabharata'' (c ...
'', wrote an independent commentary on the ' proves its importance in literature.
Adi Shankara
Adi Shankara (788–820), elaborated on Gaudapada's work and more ancient scholarship to write detailed commentaries on the Prasthanatrayi and the '. The Mandukya Upanishad and the ' have been described by Shankara as containing "the epitome of the substance of the import of Vedanta". It was Shankara who integrated Gaudapada work with the ancient ''Brahma Sutras'', "and give it a ''locus classicus''" alongside the realistic strain of the ''Brahma Sutras''.
A noted contemporary of Shankara was
Maṇḍana Miśra
Mandana Mishra (; c. ) was a Hindu philosopher who wrote on the Mīmāṃsā and Advaita systems of thought. He was a follower of the Karma Mimamsa school of philosophy and a staunch defender of the holistic sphota doctrine of language. He ...
, who regarded
Mimamsa and Vedanta as forming a single system and advocated their combination known as ''Karma-jnana-samuchchaya-vada''. The treatise on the differences between the Vedanta school and the Mimamsa school was a contribution of Adi Shankara. Advaita Vedanta rejects rituals in favor of
renunciation
Renunciation (or renouncing) is the act of rejecting something, especially if it is something that the renunciant has previously enjoyed or endorsed.
In religion, renunciation often indicates an abandonment of pursuit of material comforts, in t ...
, for example.
Early Vaishnavism Vedanta (7th–9th centuries)
Early Vaishnava Vedanta retains the tradition of ''bhedabheda'', equating Brahman with Vishnu or Krishna.
Nimbārka and Dvaitādvaita
Nimbārka
The Nimbarka Sampradaya ( IAST: ''Nimbārka Sampradāya'', Sanskrit निम्बार्क सम्प्रदाय), also known as the Hamsa Sampradāya, and Sanakādi Sampradāya (सनकादि सम्प्रदाय), i ...
(7th century) sometimes identified with
Bhāskara,
propounded ''
Dvaitādvaita
The Nimbarka Sampradaya (IAST: ''Nimbārka Sampradāya'', Sanskrit निम्बार्क सम्प्रदाय), also known as the Hamsa Sampradāya, and Sanakādi Sampradāya (सनकादि सम्प्रदाय), is ...
'' or
Bhedābheda.
Bhāskara and Upadhika
Bhāskara (8th–9th century) also taught Bhedabheda. In postulating ''Upadhika'', he considers both identity and difference to be equally real. As the causal principle, ''Brahman'' is considered non-dual and formless pure being and intelligence. The same ''Brahman'', manifest as events, becomes the world of plurality. ' is ''Brahman'' limited by the mind. Matter and its limitations are considered real, not a manifestation of ignorance. Bhaskara advocated ''bhakti'' as ''dhyana'' (meditation) directed toward the transcendental ''Brahman''. He refuted the idea of ''Maya'' and denied the possibility of liberation in bodily existence.
Vaishnavism Bhakti Vedanta (11th–16th centuries)
The
Bhakti movement
The Bhakti movement was a significant religious movement in medieval Hinduism that sought to bring religious reforms to all strata of society by adopting the method of devotion to achieve salvation. Originating in Tamilakam during 6th centur ...
of late medieval Hinduism started in the 7th century, but rapidly expanded after the 12th century. It was supported by the Puranic literature such as the
Bhagavata Purana
The ''Bhagavata Purana'' ( sa, भागवतपुराण; ), also known as the ''Srimad Bhagavatam'', ''Srimad Bhagavata Mahapurana'' or simply ''Bhagavata'', is one of Hinduism's eighteen great Puranas (''Mahapuranas''). Composed in Sa ...
, poetic works, as well as many scholarly
bhasya Bhashya () is a "commentary" or "exposition" of any primary or secondary text in ancient or medieval Indian literature. Common in Sanskrit literature, ''Bhashya'' is also found in other Indian languages. Bhashya are found in various fields, ranging ...
s and
samhitas
Saṃhitā literally means "put together, joined, union", a "collection", and "a methodically, rule-based combination of text or verses".[Ramanujacharya
Ramanuja (Middle Tamil: Rāmāṉujam; Classical Sanskrit: Rāmanuja; 1017 CE – 1137 CE; ; ), also known as Ramanujacharya, was an Indian Hindu philosopher, guru and a social reformer. He is noted to be one of the most important exponents o ...]
,
Vedanta Desika
Vedanta Desikan (1268–1369), also rendered Vedanta Desikar, Swami Vedanta Desikan, and Thoopul Nigamaantha Desikan, was an Indian polymath who wrote philosophical as well as religious and poetical works in several languages, including Sans ...
,
Madhvacharya
Madhvacharya (; ; CE 1199-1278 or CE 1238–1317), sometimes Anglicisation, anglicised as Madhva Acharya, and also known as Purna Prajna () and Ānanda Tīrtha, was an Indian philosopher, theologian and the chief proponent of the ''Dvaita'' ...
and
Vallabhacharya
Vallabhacharya Mahaprabhu (1479–1531 CE), also known as Vallabha, Mahaprabhuji and Vishnuswami, or Vallabha Acharya, is a Hindu Indian saint and philosopher who founded the Krishna-centered PushtiMarg sect of Vaishnavism in the Braj(Vraj) ...
. Bhakti poets or teachers such as
Manavala Mamunigal
Alagiya Manavalan, best known by his epithet Manavala Mamunigal (1370–1450), was a Hindu theologian. He was a major proponent of the Sri Vaishnavism tradition in the 15th century in Tamilakam, disseminating it with the help of his eight di ...
,
Namdev
Shri Sant Namdev Maharaj (Pronunciation: aːmdeʋ, also transliterated as Nam Dayv, Namdeo, Namadeva, (traditionally, ) was a Marathi Bahujan saint from Narsi, Hingoli, Maharashtra, India within the Varkari tradition of Hinduism. He lived a ...
,
Ramananda
Sri Ramanandacharya (IAST: Rāmānanda) was a 14th-century Vaishnava devotional poet saint, who lived in the Gangetic basin of northern India. The Hindu tradition recognizes him as the founder of the Ramanandi Sampradaya, the largest monastic ...
,
Surdas
Surdas (IAST: Sūr, Devanagari: सूर) was a 16th-century blind Hindu devotional poet and singer, who was known for his works written in praise of Krishna, the supreme lord. He was a Vaishnava devotee of Lord Krishna, and he was also a ...
,
Tulsidas
Tulsidas (; born Rambola Dubey; also known as Goswami Tulsidas; c.1511pp. 23–34.–1623) was a Ramanandi Vaishnava Hindu saint and poet, renowned for his devotion to the deity Rama. He wrote several popular works in Sanskrit and Awadhi, but ...
,
Eknath
Eknath (IAST: Eka-nātha, Marathi language, Marathi pronunciation: Help:IPA/Marathi, knath (1533–1599), commonly known as Sant (religion), Sant Eknath was an Indian Hindu saint, philosopher and poet. He was a devotee of the Hindu deity ...
,
Tyagaraja
Thyagaraja (Telugu: త్యాగరాజ) (4 May 1767 – 6 January 1847), also known as Thyāgayya and in full as Kakarla Thyagabrahmam, was a composer and vocalist of Carnatic music, a form of Indian classical music. Tyagaraja and his ...
, Chaitanya Mahaprabhu and many others influenced the expansion of Vaishnavism. These Vaishnavism sampradaya founders challenged the then dominant
Shankara's doctrines of Advaita Vedanta, particularly
Ramanuja
Ramanuja (Middle Tamil: Rāmāṉujam; Classical Sanskrit: Rāmanuja; 1017 CE – 1137 CE; ; ), also known as Ramanujacharya, was an Indian Hindu philosopher, guru and a social reformer. He is noted to be one of the most important exponents o ...
in the 12th century,
Vedanta Desika
Vedanta Desikan (1268–1369), also rendered Vedanta Desikar, Swami Vedanta Desikan, and Thoopul Nigamaantha Desikan, was an Indian polymath who wrote philosophical as well as religious and poetical works in several languages, including Sans ...
and
Madhva
Madhvacharya (; ; CE 1199-1278 or CE 1238–1317), sometimes anglicised as Madhva Acharya, and also known as Purna Prajna () and Ānanda Tīrtha, was an Indian philosopher, theologian and the chief proponent of the '' Dvaita'' (dualism) sch ...
in the 13th, building their theology on the devotional tradition of the
Alvars
The Alvars ( ta, ஆழ்வார், Āḻvār, translit-std=ISO, lit=The Immersed) were the Tamil poet-saints of South India who espoused ''bhakti'' (devotion) to the Hindu preserver deity Vishnu, in their songs of longing, ecstasy, and ...
(
Shri Vaishnavas
Sri Vaishnavism, or the Sri Vaishnava Sampradaya, is a denomination within the Vaishnavism tradition of Hinduism. The name refers to goddess Lakshmi (also known as Sri), as well as a prefix that means "sacred, revered", and the god Vishnu, who ...
), and
Vallabhacharya
Vallabhacharya Mahaprabhu (1479–1531 CE), also known as Vallabha, Mahaprabhuji and Vishnuswami, or Vallabha Acharya, is a Hindu Indian saint and philosopher who founded the Krishna-centered PushtiMarg sect of Vaishnavism in the Braj(Vraj) ...
in the 16th century.
In North and Eastern India, Vaishnavism gave rise to various late Medieval movements:
Ramananda
Sri Ramanandacharya (IAST: Rāmānanda) was a 14th-century Vaishnava devotional poet saint, who lived in the Gangetic basin of northern India. The Hindu tradition recognizes him as the founder of the Ramanandi Sampradaya, the largest monastic ...
in the 14th century,
Sankaradeva
Srimanta Sankardev( শ্ৰীমন্ত শংকৰদেৱ )(; ; 1449–1568) was a 15th–16th century Assamese polymath; a saint-scholar, poet, playwright, dancer, actor, musician, artist social-religious reformer and a figure of im ...
in the 15th and
Vallabha
Vallabhacharya Mahaprabhu (1479–1531 CE), also known as Vallabha, Mahaprabhuji and Vishnuswami, or Vallabha Acharya, is a Hindu Indian saint and philosopher who founded the Krishna-centered PushtiMarg sect of Vaishnavism in the Braj(Vraj) ...
and
Chaitanya in the 16th century.
Ramanuja (Vishishtadvaita Vedanta) (11th–12th centuries)
Rāmānuja (1017–1137 CE) was the most influential philosopher in the
Vishishtadvaita
Vishishtadvaita (IAST '; sa, विशिष्टाद्वैत) is one of the most popular schools of the Vedanta school of Hindu philosophy. Vedanta literally means the in depth meaning ''of the Vedas.'' ''Vishisht Advaita'' (literall ...
tradition. As the philosophical architect of Vishishtadvaita, he taught qualified
non-dualism
Nondualism, also called nonduality and nondual awareness, is a fuzzy concept originating in Indian philosophy and religion for which many definitions can be found, including: nondual awareness, the nonduality of seer and seen or nondiffer ...
. Ramanuja's teacher, Yadava Prakasha, followed the Advaita monastic tradition. Tradition has it that Ramanuja disagreed with Yadava and Advaita Vedanta, and instead followed
Nathamuni
Nathamuni, also known as Sri Ranganathamuni, (823 CE – 951 CE), was a Sri Vaishnava, Vaishnava theologian who collected and compiled the Divya Prabandha, Naalayira Divya Prabandham.
Srinivasa Chari, S. M. (1994). Vaiṣṇavism, p.22-24. Mot ...
and
Yāmuna. Ramanuja reconciled the ''Prasthanatrayi'' with the theism and philosophy of the Vaishnava
Alvars
The Alvars ( ta, ஆழ்வார், Āḻvār, translit-std=ISO, lit=The Immersed) were the Tamil poet-saints of South India who espoused ''bhakti'' (devotion) to the Hindu preserver deity Vishnu, in their songs of longing, ecstasy, and ...
poet-saints. Ramanuja wrote a number of influential texts, such as a
bhasya Bhashya () is a "commentary" or "exposition" of any primary or secondary text in ancient or medieval Indian literature. Common in Sanskrit literature, ''Bhashya'' is also found in other Indian languages. Bhashya are found in various fields, ranging ...
on the ''Brahma Sutras'' and the ''Bhagavad Gita'', all in Sanskrit.
Ramanuja presented the
epistemological
Epistemology (; ), or the theory of knowledge, is the branch of philosophy concerned with knowledge. Epistemology is considered a major subfield of philosophy, along with other major subfields such as ethics, logic, and metaphysics.
Episte ...
and
soteriological
Soteriology (; el, σωτηρία ' "salvation" from σωτήρ ' "savior, preserver" and λόγος ' "study" or "word") is the study of religious doctrines of salvation. Salvation theory occupies a place of special significance in many religio ...
importance of bhakti, or the devotion to a personal God (Vishnu in Ramanuja's case) as a means to spiritual liberation. His theories assert that there exists a plurality and distinction between Atman (souls) and Brahman (metaphysical, ultimate reality), while he also affirmed that there is unity of all souls and that the individual soul has the potential to realize identity with the Brahman.
[; ; ] Vishishtadvaiata provides the philosophical basis of
Sri Vaishnavism
Sri Vaishnavism, or the Sri Vaishnava Sampradaya, is a denomination within the Vaishnavism tradition of Hinduism. The name refers to goddess Lakshmi (also known as Sri), as well as a prefix that means "sacred, revered", and the god Vishnu, who ...
.
Ramanuja was influential in integrating ''
Bhakti
''Bhakti'' ( sa, भक्ति) literally means "attachment, participation, fondness for, homage, faith, love, devotion, worship, purity".See Monier-Williams, ''Sanskrit Dictionary'', 1899. It was originally used in Hinduism, referring to d ...
'', the devotional worship, into Vedanta premises.
Madhva (Tattvavada or Dvaita Vedanta)(13th–14th centuries)
Tattvavada
Dvaita Vedanta (); (originally known as Tattvavada; IAST:Tattvavāda), is a sub-school in the Vedanta tradition of Hindu philosophy. The term Tattvavada literally means "arguments from a realist viewpoint". The Tattvavada (Dvaita) Vedanta sub ...
or
Dvaita Vedanta
Dvaita Vedanta (); (originally known as Tattvavada; IAST:Tattvavāda), is a sub-school in the Vedanta tradition of Hindu philosophy. The term Tattvavada literally means "arguments from a realist viewpoint". The Tattvavada (Dvaita) Vedanta sub ...
was propounded by
Madhvacharya
Madhvacharya (; ; CE 1199-1278 or CE 1238–1317), sometimes Anglicisation, anglicised as Madhva Acharya, and also known as Purna Prajna () and Ānanda Tīrtha, was an Indian philosopher, theologian and the chief proponent of the ''Dvaita'' ...
(1238–1317 CE). He presented the opposite interpretation of Shankara in his Dvaita, or dualistic system. In contrast to Shankara's non-dualism and Ramanuja's qualified non-dualism, he championed unqualified dualism. Madhva wrote commentaries on the chief ''Upanishads'', the ''Bhagavad Gita'' and the ''Brahma Sutra''.
Madhva started his Vedic studies at age seven, joined an Advaita Vedanta monastery in Dwarka (Gujarat), studied under
guru
Guru ( sa, गुरु, IAST: ''guru;'' Pali'': garu'') is a Sanskrit term for a "mentor, guide, expert, or master" of certain knowledge or field. In pan-Indian traditions, a guru is more than a teacher: traditionally, the guru is a reverentia ...
Achyutrapreksha, frequently disagreed with him, left the Advaita monastery, and founded Dvaita. Madhva and his followers Jayatirtha and Vyasatirtha, were critical of all competing Hindu philosophies, Jainism and Buddhism, but particularly intense in their criticism of Advaita Vedanta and Adi Shankara.
Dvaita Vedanta is theistic and it identifies Brahman with Narayana, or more specifically Vishnu, in a manner similar to Ramanuja's Vishishtadvaita Vedanta. But it is more explicitly pluralistic. Madhva's emphasis for difference between soul and Brahman was so pronounced that he taught there were differences (1) between material things; (2) between material things and souls; (3) between material things and God; (4) between souls; and (5) between souls and God. He also advocated for a difference in degrees in the possession of knowledge. He also advocated for differences in the enjoyment of bliss even in the case of liberated souls, a doctrine found in no other system of Indian philosophy.
Chaitanya Mahaprabhu (Achintya Bheda Abheda) (16th century)
''
Achintya Bheda Abheda
Achintya-Bheda-Abheda (अचिन्त्यभेदाभेद, ' in IAST) is a school of Vedanta representing the philosophy of ''inconceivable one-ness and difference''.pp. 47-52 In Sanskrit ''achintya'' means 'inconceivable', ''bheda ...
'' (Vaishnava), founded by
Chaitanya Mahaprabhu
Chaitanya Mahaprabhu (; born Vishvambhar Mishra) was a 15th-century Indian saint who is considered to be the combined avatar of Radha and Krishna by his disciples and various scriptures. Chaitanya Mahaprabhu's mode of worshipping Krishna ...
(1486–1534 CE), was propagated by
Gaudiya Vaishnava
Gaudiya Vaishnavism (), also known as Chaitanya Vaishnavism, is a Vaishnava Hindu religious movement inspired by Chaitanya Mahaprabhu (1486–1534) in India. "Gaudiya" refers to the Gaura or Gauḍa region of Bengal, with Vaishnavism meanin ...
. Historically, it was
Chaitanya Mahaprabhu
Chaitanya Mahaprabhu (; born Vishvambhar Mishra) was a 15th-century Indian saint who is considered to be the combined avatar of Radha and Krishna by his disciples and various scriptures. Chaitanya Mahaprabhu's mode of worshipping Krishna ...
who founded congregational chanting of holy names of Krishna in the early 16th century after becoming a
sannyasi
''Sannyasa'' (Sanskrit: संन्यास; IAST: ), sometimes spelled Sanyasa (सन्न्यास) or Sanyasi (for the person), is life of renunciation and the fourth stage within the Hindu system of four life stages known as '' As ...
.
Modern times (19th century – present)
Swaminarayan and Akshar-Purushottam Darshan (19th century)
The
Swaminarayan Darshana
The Swaminarayan Sampradaya, also known as Swaminarayan Hinduism and Swaminarayan movement, is a Hindu Vaishnava sampradaya rooted in Ramanuja's Vishishtadvaita, characterized by the Bhakti, worship of its Charismatic authority, charismati ...
, which is rooted in Ramanuja's Vishishtadvaita, was founded in 1801 by
Swaminarayan
Swaminarayan (IAST: ', 3 April 1781 – 1 June 1830), also known as Sahajanand Swami, was a yogi and Asceticism, ascetic, who is believed by followers to be a manifestation of God Krishna, or as the highest Theophany, manifestation of ...
(1781-1830 CE), and is contemporarily most notably propagated by
BAPS
Bochasanwasi Akshar Purushottam Swaminarayan Sanstha (BAPS; ) is a Hindu denomination within the Swaminarayan Sampradaya. It was formed in 1905 by Yagnapurushdas (Shastriji Maharaj) following his conviction that Swaminarayan remained present o ...
. Due to the commentarial work of
Bhadreshdas Swami
Bhadreshdas Swami is a Sanskrit scholar and an ordained monk of the Bochasanwasi Akshar Purushottam Swaminarayan Sanstha (BAPS). In 2007 he completed the ''Swaminarayan Bhashyam'', a five-volume classical Sanskrit commentary on the Prasthanat ...
, the Akshar-Purushottam teachings were recognized as a distinct school of Vedanta by the ''Shri Kashi Vidvat Parishad'' in 2017
and by members of the 17th World Sanskrit Conference in 2018.
Swami Paramtattvadas describes the Akshar-Purushottam teachings as "a distinct school of thought within the larger expanse of classical Vedanta," presenting the Akshar-Purushottam teachings as a seventh school of Vedanta.
Neo-Vedanta (19th century)
Neo-Vedanta, variously called as "Hindu modernism", "neo-Hinduism", and "neo-Advaita", is a term that denotes some novel interpretations of
Hinduism
Hinduism () is an Indian religion or '' dharma'', a religious and universal order or way of life by which followers abide. As a religion, it is the world's third-largest, with over 1.2–1.35 billion followers, or 15–16% of the global p ...
that developed in the 19th century, presumably as a reaction to the colonial British rule. writes that these notions accorded the Hindu nationalists an opportunity to attempt the construction of a nationalist ideology to help unite the Hindus to fight colonial oppression. Western
orientalists
In art history, literature and cultural studies, Orientalism is the imitation or depiction of aspects in the Eastern world. These depictions are usually done by writers, designers, and artists from the Western world. In particular, Orientalist p ...
, in their search for its "essence", attempted to formulate a notion of "Hinduism" based on a single interpretation of Vedanta as a unified body of religious praxis. This was contra-factual as, historically, Hinduism and Vedanta had always accepted a diversity of traditions. asserts that the neo-Vedantic theory of "overarching tolerance and acceptance" was used by the Hindu reformers, together with the ideas of
Universalism
Universalism is the philosophical and theological concept that some ideas have universal application or applicability.
A belief in one fundamental truth is another important tenet in universalism. The living truth is seen as more far-reaching th ...
and
Perennialism
The perennial philosophy ( la, philosophia perennis), also referred to as perennialism and perennial wisdom, is a perspective in philosophy and spirituality that views all of the world's religious traditions as sharing a single, metaphysical trut ...
, to challenge the polemic dogmatism of Judaeo-Christian-Islamic missionaries against the Hindus.
The neo-Vedantins argued that the six orthodox schools of Hindu philosophy were perspectives on a single truth, all valid and complementary to each other. sees these interpretations as incorporating western ideas into traditional systems, especially
Advaita Vedanta
''Advaita Vedanta'' (; sa, अद्वैत वेदान्त, ) is a Hinduism, Hindu sādhanā, a path of spiritual discipline and experience, and the oldest extant tradition of the Āstika and nāstika, orthodox Hindu school Ved ...
. It is the modern form of Advaita Vedanta, states , the neo-Vedantists subsumed the Buddhist philosophies as part of the Vedanta tradition and then argued that all the world religions are same "non-dualistic position as the philosophia perennis", ignoring the differences within and outside of Hinduism. According to , neo-Vedanta is Advaita Vedanta which accepts universal realism:
A major proponent in the popularization of this Universalist and Perennialist interpretation of Advaita Vedanta was
Vivekananda
Swami Vivekananda (; ; 12 January 1863 – 4 July 1902), born Narendranath Datta (), was an Indian Hindu monk, philosopher, author, religious teacher, and the chief disciple of the Indian mystic Ramakrishna. He was a key figure in the introd ...
, who played a major role in the
revival of Hinduism. He was also instrumental in the spread of Advaita Vedanta to the West via the
Vedanta Society
Vedanta Societies refer to organizations, groups, or societies formed for the study, practice, and propagation of Vedanta, the ancient religion based on the Vedas. More specifically, they "comprise the American arm of the Indian Ramakrishna move ...
, the international arm of the
Ramakrishna Order
The Ramakrishna Order (Bengali: রামকৃষ্ণ সংঘ) is the monastic lineage that was founded by Sri Ramakrishna, when he gave the ochre cloth of renunciation to twelve of his close disciples, in January 1886 at the Cossipore Hous ...
.
= Criticism of Neo-Vedanta label
=
writes that the attempts at integration which came to be known as neo-Vedanta were evident as early as between the 12th and the 16th century−
Matilal criticizes Neo-Hinduism as an oddity developed by West-inspired Western Indologists and attributes it to the flawed Western perception of Hinduism in modern India. In his scathing criticism of this school of reasoning, says:
Influence
According to , the Vedanta school has had a historic and central influence on Hinduism:
Frithjof Schuon
Frithjof Schuon (, , ; 18 June 1907 – 5 May 1998) was a Swiss metaphysician of German descent, belonging to the Perennialist or Traditionalist School of thought. He was the author of more than twenty works in French on metaphysics, spiritual ...
summarizes the influence of Vedanta on Hinduism as follows:
Gavin Flood
__NOTOC__
Gavin Dennis Flood (born 1954) is a British scholar of comparative religion specialising in Shaivism and phenomenology, but with research interests that span South Asian traditions.
From October 2005 through December 2015, he served ...
states,
Hindu traditions
Vedanta, adopting ideas from other
orthodox (''āstika'') schools, became the most prominent school of
Hinduism
Hinduism () is an Indian religion or '' dharma'', a religious and universal order or way of life by which followers abide. As a religion, it is the world's third-largest, with over 1.2–1.35 billion followers, or 15–16% of the global p ...
. Vedanta traditions led to the development of many traditions in Hinduism.
Sri Vaishnavism
Sri Vaishnavism, or the Sri Vaishnava Sampradaya, is a denomination within the Vaishnavism tradition of Hinduism. The name refers to goddess Lakshmi (also known as Sri), as well as a prefix that means "sacred, revered", and the god Vishnu, who ...
of south and southeastern India is based on Ramanuja's ''Vishishtadvaita'' Vedanta. Ramananda led to the ''Vaishnav Bhakti'' Movement in north, east, central and west India. This movement draws its philosophical and theistic basis from ''Vishishtadvaita''. A large number of devotional ''Vaishnavism'' traditions of east India, north India (particularly the Braj region), west and central India are based on various sub-schools of ''Bhedabheda'' Vedanta. ''Advaita'' Vedanta influenced ''Krishna Vaishnavism'' in the northeastern state of
Assam
Assam (; ) is a state in northeastern India, south of the eastern Himalayas along the Brahmaputra and Barak River valleys. Assam covers an area of . The state is bordered by Bhutan and Arunachal Pradesh to the north; Nagaland and Manipur ...
. The Madhva school of Vaishnavism found in coastal
Karnataka
Karnataka (; ISO: , , also known as Karunāḍu) is a state in the southwestern region of India. It was formed on 1 November 1956, with the passage of the States Reorganisation Act. Originally known as Mysore State , it was renamed ''Karnat ...
is based on ''Dvaita'' Vedanta.
''
Āgamas'', the classical literature of ''
Shaivism
Shaivism (; sa, शैवसम्प्रदायः, Śaivasampradāyaḥ) is one of the major Hindu traditions, which worships Shiva as the Supreme Being. One of the largest Hindu denominations, it incorporates many sub-traditions rangi ...
'', though independent in origin, show Vedanta association and premises. Of the 92 ''Āgamas'', ten are (''
dvaita
Dvaita Vedanta (); (originally known as Tattvavada; IAST:Tattvavāda), is a sub-school in the Vedanta tradition of Hindu philosophy. The term Tattvavada literally means "arguments from a realist viewpoint". The Tattvavada (Dvaita) Vedanta su ...
'') texts, eighteen (''
bhedabheda
Bhedābheda Vedānta is a subschool of Vedānta, which teaches that the individual self (''jīvātman'') is both different and not different from the ultimate reality known as Brahman.
Etymology
''Bhedābheda'' (Devanagari: ) is a Sanskrit wor ...
''), and sixty-four (''
advaita
''Advaita Vedanta'' (; sa, अद्वैत वेदान्त, ) is a Hindu sādhanā, a path of spiritual discipline and experience, and the oldest extant tradition of the orthodox Hindu school Vedānta. The term ''Advaita'' (lit ...
'') texts. While the ''Bhairava Shastras'' are monistic, ''Shiva Shastras'' are dualistic. finds the link between Gaudapada's ''Advaita'' Vedanta and ''
Kashmir Shaivism
Kashmir Shaivism or Trika Shaivism, is a nondualist tradition of Shaiva-Shakta Tantra which originated sometime after 850 CE. Since this tradition originated in Kashmir it is often called "Kashmiri Shaivism". It later went on to become a pan ...
'' evident and natural.
Tirumular
Tirumular (also spelt Thirumoolar etc., originally known as Suntaranāthar) was a Tamil Shaivite mystic and writer, considered one of the sixty-three Nayanmars and one of the 18 Siddhars. His main work, the ''Tirumantiram'' (also sometimes wri ...
, the Tamil ''Shaiva Siddhanta'' scholar, credited with creating "Vedanta–Siddhanta" (Advaita Vedanta and Shaiva Siddhanta synthesis), stated, "becoming ''Shiva'' is the goal of Vedanta and ''Siddhanta''; all other goals are secondary to it and are vain."
''
Shaktism
Shaktism ( sa, शाक्त, , ) is one of several major Hindu denominations, wherein the metaphysical reality is considered metaphorically a woman and Shakti ( Mahadevi) is regarded as the supreme godhead. It includes many goddesses, al ...
'', or traditions where a goddess is considered identical to ''
Brahman
In Hinduism, ''Brahman'' ( sa, ब्रह्मन्) connotes the highest universal principle, the ultimate reality in the universe.P. T. Raju (2006), ''Idealistic Thought of India'', Routledge, , page 426 and Conclusion chapter part X ...
'', has similarly flowered from a syncretism of the monist premises of ''Advaita'' Vedanta and dualism premises of ''Samkhya–Yoga'' school of Hindu philosophy, sometimes referred to as ''Shaktadavaitavada'' (literally, the path of nondualistic ''Shakti'').
[; ; ]
Influence on Western thinkers
An exchange of ideas has been taking place between the western world and Asia since the late 18th century as a result of colonization of parts of Asia by Western powers. This also influenced western religiosity. The first translation of ''Upanishads'', published in two parts in 1801 and 1802, significantly influenced
Arthur Schopenhauer
Arthur Schopenhauer ( , ; 22 February 1788 – 21 September 1860) was a German philosopher. He is best known for his 1818 work ''The World as Will and Representation'' (expanded in 1844), which characterizes the phenomenal world as the prod ...
, who called them the consolation of his life. He drew explicit parallels between his philosophy, as set out in ''The World as Will and Representation'', and that of the Vedanta philosophy as described in the work of Sir William Jones. Early translations also appeared in other European languages. Influenced by Śaṅkara's concepts of ''Brahman'' (God) and ''māyā'' (illusion),
Lucian Blaga
Lucian Blaga (; 9 May 1895 – 6 May 1961) was a Romanian philosopher, poet, playwright, poetry translator and novelist. He was a commanding personality of the Romanian culture of the interbellum period.
Biography
Blaga was born on 9 May 1895 ...
often used the concepts ''marele anonim'' (the Great Anonymous) and ''cenzura transcendentă'' (the transcendental censorship) in his philosophy.
Similarities with Spinoza's philosophy
German Sanskritist
Theodore Goldstücker
Theodore may refer to:
Places
* Theodore, Alabama, United States
* Theodore, Australian Capital Territory
* Theodore, Queensland, a town in the Shire of Banana, Australia
* Theodore, Saskatchewan, Canada
* Theodore Reservoir, a lake in Saskatche ...
was among the early scholars to notice similarities between the religious conceptions of the Vedanta and those of the Dutch Jewish philosopher
Baruch Spinoza
Baruch (de) Spinoza (born Bento de Espinosa; later as an author and a correspondent ''Benedictus de Spinoza'', anglicized to ''Benedict de Spinoza''; 24 November 1632 – 21 February 1677) was a Dutch philosopher of Portuguese-Jewish origin, b ...
, writing that Spinoza's thought was
Max Müller
Friedrich Max Müller (; 6 December 1823 – 28 October 1900) was a German-born philologist and Orientalist, who lived and studied in Britain for most of his life. He was one of the founders of the western academic disciplines of Indian ...
noted the striking similarities between Vedanta and the system of Spinoza, saying,
Helena Blavatsky
Helena Petrovna Blavatsky, uk, Олена Петрівна Блаватська, Olena Petrivna Blavatska (; – 8 May 1891), often known as Madame Blavatsky, was a Russian mystic and author who co-founded the Theosophical Society in 187 ...
, a founder of the
Theosophical Society
The Theosophical Society, founded in 1875, is a worldwide body with the aim to advance the ideas of Theosophy in continuation of previous Theosophists, especially the Greek and Alexandrian Neo-Platonic philosophers dating back to 3rd century CE ...
, also compared Spinoza's religious thought to Vedanta, writing in an unfinished essay,
See also
*
Badarayana
*
Monistic idealism
In philosophy, the term idealism identifies and describes metaphysical perspectives which assert that reality is indistinguishable and inseparable from perception and understanding; that reality is a mental construct closely connected to id ...
*
List of teachers of Vedanta
This is a list of teachers of Vedanta, a Hindu philosophical system.
Pre-19th century
* Vasishta Maharishi
* Shakti Maharishi
* Parashara Maharishi
*Krishna Dwaipayana Vyasa
* Sri Shuka Acharya
* Badarayana
*Gaudapada
*Govinda Bhagavatpada
* ...
*
Self-consciousness (Vedanta)
Self-consciousness in the Upanishads is not the first-person indexical self-awareness or the self-awareness which is self-reference without identification, and also not the self-consciousness which as a kind of desire is satisfied by another self-c ...
*
Śāstra pramāṇam in Hinduism
In Hinduism, refers to Pramana#Śabda, the authority of the scriptures (''śruti'', Vedas) with regard to ''puruṣārtha'', the objects of human pursuit, namely ''Dharma (Hinduism), dharma'' (right conduct), ''artha'' (means of life), ''kāma'' ...
Notes
References
Sources
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Web sources
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Further reading
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*Comparative analysis of commentaries on Vedanta Sutras. https://archive.org/download/in.ernet.dli.2015.283844/2015.283844.The-Vedanta.pdf
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* - Resources to help with the Study and Practice of Vedanta.
External links
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{{Authority control
Āstika
Consciousness
Dualism in cosmology
Hindu philosophical concepts
Metaphilosophy
Movements in ancient Indian philosophy
Nondualism
Philosophical movements
Philosophical schools and traditions
Vedas