Siyaka (
IAST
The International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration (IAST) is a transliteration scheme that allows the lossless romanisation of Indic scripts as employed by Sanskrit and related Indic languages. It is based on a scheme that emerged during ...
: Sīyaka; reigned c. 949-972 CE), also known as Harsha (IAST: Harṣa), was a
Paramara
The Paramara dynasty (IAST: Paramāra) was an Indian dynasty that ruled Malwa and surrounding areas in west-central India between 9th and 14th centuries. They belonged to the Parmara clan of the Rajputs.
The dynasty was established in either th ...
king, who ruled in west-central India. He appears to have been the first independent ruler of the Paramara dynasty.
Siyaka is the earliest Paramara ruler known from his own
inscriptions, which have been discovered in present-day
Gujarat
Gujarat (, ) is a state along the western coast of India. Its coastline of about is the longest in the country, most of which lies on the Kathiawar peninsula. Gujarat is the fifth-largest Indian state by area, covering some ; and the ninth ...
, and suggest that he was once a feudatory of the
Rashtrakutas
Rashtrakuta (IAST: ') (r. 753-982 CE) was a royal Indian dynasty ruling large parts of the Indian subcontinent between the sixth and 10th centuries. The earliest known Rashtrakuta inscription is a 7th-century copper plate grant detailing their ...
of
Manyakheta
Malkhed originally known as Manyakheta (IAST: Mānyakheṭa, Prakrit: "Mannakheḍa"), and also known as Malkhed,Village code= 311400 Malkhed (J), Gulbarga, Karnataka is a town in Karnataka, India. It is located on the banks of Kagina river i ...
. After the death of the Rashtrakuta emperor
Krishna III
Krishna III whose Kannada name was Kannara (r. 939 – 967 C.E.) was the last great warrior and able monarch of the Rashtrakuta dynasty of Manyakheta. He was a shrewd administrator and skillful military campaigner. He waged many wars to bring b ...
, he fought against the new king
Khottiga
Khottiga or Amoghavarsha IV (ruled 967–972 CE), who bore the title ''Nityavarsha'', was a ruler of the Rashtrakuta Empire. During this period the Rashtrakutas started to decline. The Paramara King Siyaka II plundered Manyakheta and Khottiga di ...
, and sacked the Rashtrakuta capital
Manyakheta
Malkhed originally known as Manyakheta (IAST: Mānyakheṭa, Prakrit: "Mannakheḍa"), and also known as Malkhed,Village code= 311400 Malkhed (J), Gulbarga, Karnataka is a town in Karnataka, India. It is located on the banks of Kagina river i ...
in c. 972 CE. This ultimately led to the decline of the Rashtrakutas, and established the Paramaras as an imperial power.
Background
Siyaka was the son of Vairisimha II. The
Harsola copper-plate inscriptions issued by Siyaka are dated 31 January 949 CE. Based on this, it can be inferred that Siyaka must have ascended the Paramara throne sometime before January 949 CE.
Names and titles
In his own inscriptions, as well as the inscriptions of his successors
Munja and
Bhoja
Bhoja (reigned c. 1010–1055 CE) was an Indian king from the Paramara dynasty. His kingdom was centered around the Malwa region in central India, where his capital Dhara-nagara (modern Dhar) was located. Bhoja fought wars with nearly all h ...
, he is called "Siyaka". In
Udaipur
Udaipur () (ISO 15919: ''Udayapura''), historically named as Udayapura, is a city and municipal corporation in Udaipur district of the state of Rajasthan, India. It is the administrative headquarter of Udaipur district. It is the historic capit ...
''
prashasti
''Prashasti'' (IAST: Praśasti, Sanskrit for "praise") is an Indian genre of inscriptions composed by poets in praise of their rulers. Most date from the 6th century CE onwards. Written in the form of poetry or ornate prose, the ''prashastis'' s ...
'' inscription (which mentions an earlier king called Siyaka), as well as the
Arthuna
Arthuna is a town in Banswara district, Rajasthan, India.
History
The old name of the place was Utthunaka. It was the capital of Paramara rulers of Vagad during eleventh-twelfth centuries A.D. They patronized both Jainism and Saivism simultan ...
inscription, the predecessor of Munja has been called Harsha (or
Shri
Shri (; , ) is a Sanskrit term denoting resplendence, wealth and prosperity, primarily used as an honorific.
The word is widely used in South and Southeast Asian languages such as Marathi, Malay (including Indonesian and Malaysian), Javanese, ...
Harsha-
deva
Deva may refer to:
Entertainment
* ''Deva'' (1989 film), a 1989 Kannada film
* ''Deva'' (1995 film), a 1995 Tamil film
* ''Deva'' (2002 film), a 2002 Bengali film
* Deva (2007 Telugu film)
* ''Deva'' (2017 film), a 2017 Marathi film
* Deva ...
). Therefore, modern historians also refer to him as Siyaka II to distinguish him from Siyaka I mentioned in the Udaipur inscription; some scholars believe that Siyaka I is a fictional person.
Merutunga, in his ''
Prabandha-Chintamani
''Prabandha-Chintamani'' (IAST: Prabandha-cintāmaṇi) is an Indian Sanskrit-language collection of ''prabandhas'' (semi-historical biographical narratives). It was compiled in c. 1304 CE, in the Vaghela kingdom of present-day Gujarat, by Jain s ...
'', names the king as Simha-danta-bhata (alternatively Simha-bhata). According to one theory, "Siyaka" is the Prakrit corruption of the Sanskrit "Simhaka".
Georg Bühler
Professor Johann Georg Bühler (July 19, 1837 – April 8, 1898) was a scholar of ancient Indian languages and law.
Early life and education
Bühler was born to Rev. Johann G. Bühler in Borstel, Hanover, attended grammar school in Hanover, whe ...
suggested that the full name of the king was Harsha-simha, and both parts of this name were used to refer to him.
Military career
By the time of Siyaka's ascention to the Paramara throne, the once-powerful
Gurjara-Pratihara
The Gurjara-Pratihara was a dynasty that ruled much of Hindustan, Northern India from the mid-8th to the 11th century. They ruled first at Ujjain and later at Kannauj.
The Gurjara-Pratiharas were instrumental in containing Arab armies moving ...
s had declined in power, because of attacks from the Rashtrakutas and the
Chandela
The Chandelas of Jejakabhukti was an Indian dynasty in Central India. The Chandelas ruled much of the Bundelkhand region (then called ''Jejakabhukti'') between the 9th and the 13th centuries. They belonged to the Chandel clan of the Rajputs.
...
s. Siyaka's 949 CE
Harsola inscriptions suggests that he was a feudatory of the Rashtrakuta ruler
Krishna III
Krishna III whose Kannada name was Kannara (r. 939 – 967 C.E.) was the last great warrior and able monarch of the Rashtrakuta dynasty of Manyakheta. He was a shrewd administrator and skillful military campaigner. He waged many wars to bring b ...
. However, the same inscription also mentions the high-sounding ''
Maharajadhiraj
Mahārāja (; also spelled Maharajah, Maharaj) is a Sanskrit title for a "great ruler", "great king" or " high king".
A few ruled states informally called empires, including ruler raja Sri Gupta, founder of the ancient Indian Gupta Empire, an ...
apati'' as one of Siyaka's titles. Based on this, K. N. Seth believes that Siyaka's acceptance of the Rashtrakuta lordship was nominal. Seth also theorizes that Siyaka was originally a Pratihara vassal, but shifted his allegiance to the Rashtrakutas as the Pratihara power declined.
Yogaraja
The inscriptions of Siyaka are the earliest known Paramara inscriptions: they have been discovered in present-day Gujarat, and therefore, it appears that the Paramaras were connected with Gujarat in their early years. The Harsola inscriptions record Siyaka's village grants to two
Nagar Brahmins
The Nagar Brahmin is a Hindu Brahmin subcaste mainly from the Indian state of Gujarat.
Author T. Sasaki says, Among Brahmins in Gujarat Nagar Brahmins were most prominent subdivision in the political, economic and social activities of this r ...
, after a victorious campaign against one Yogaraja. The identity of Yogaraja is uncertain: he may have been a
Chavda
The Chavda (IAST:Chávaḍá), also spelled Chawda or Chavada was a dynasty which ruled the region of modern-day Gujarat in India, from c. 690 to 942. Variants of the name for the dynasty include Chapotkatas, Chahuda and Chávoṭakas.
During ...
chief or the
Chalukya
The Chalukya dynasty () was a Classical Indian dynasty that ruled large parts of southern and central India between the 6th and the 12th centuries. During this period, they ruled as three related yet individual dynasties. The earliest dynas ...
chief Avantivarman Yogaraja II. Both these rulers were vassals of the
Pratihara
The Gurjara-Pratihara was a dynasty that ruled much of Northern India from the mid-8th to the 11th century. They ruled first at Ujjain and later at Kannauj.
The Gurjara-Pratiharas were instrumental in containing Arab armies moving east of the ...
s, and Siyaka may have led an expedition against either of them as a Rashtrakuta subordinate. Siyaka issued the grants at the request of the ruler of Khetaka-mandala (
Kheda
Kheda, also known as Kaira, is a city and a municipality in the Indian state of Gujarat. It was former administrative capital of Kheda district. India's First Deputy Prime Minister Vallabhbhai Patel Was Born In Kheda District of Gujarat State.K ...
), who might have been a Rashtrakuta feudatory as well.
Hunas
''
Nava-sahasanka-charita
:Not to be confused with ''Nava-sahasanka-charita'' by Shriharsha
''Nava-sahasanka-charita'' (IAST: ''Nava-sāhasānka-carita'', "the biography of the New Sahasanka") is a Sanskrit-language epic poem written by the Paramara court poet Padmagupta, ...
'', an epic poem by the Paramara court poet Padmagupta, states that Siyaka defeated
Huna princes, and turned their
harem
Harem (Persian: حرمسرا ''haramsarā'', ar, حَرِيمٌ ''ḥarīm'', "a sacred inviolable place; harem; female members of the family") refers to domestic spaces that are reserved for the women of the house in a Muslim family. A hare ...
s into a residence of widows. The fragmentary
Modi inscription also corroborates this victory of Siyaka, stating that he ruled the land "sprinkled over by the blood of the Hunas". This Huna territory was probably located in the north-western part of Malwa. Siyaka might have defeated a successor of the Huna chief Jajjapa, who had been killed by the Chalukya feudatory Balavarman in 9th century.
Chandelas
''Nava-Sahasanka-Charita'' also mentions that Siyaka defeated the lord of Rudapati. This territory appears to be same as "Rodapadi" mentioned in a fragmentary inscription found at
Vidisha
Vidisha (विदिशा, formerly known as Bhelsa and known as Besnagar in ancient times) is a city in central Madhya Pradesh, India. It is located 62.5 km northeast of the state capital, Bhopal. The name "Vidisha" is derived from th ...
; it appears that Rudapati lay on the eastern frontier of the Paramara kingdom. The conquest of Rudapati would have brought Siyaka in conflict with the
Chandela
The Chandelas of Jejakabhukti was an Indian dynasty in Central India. The Chandelas ruled much of the Bundelkhand region (then called ''Jejakabhukti'') between the 9th and the 13th centuries. They belonged to the Chandel clan of the Rajputs.
...
king
Yashovarman
Yashovarman (IAST: Yaśovarman) was a medieval Indian ruler of Kannauj, who founded the Varman dynasty of Kannauj. There are few sources that provide information of his life, although he was indubitably a powerful man.
Life
Yashovarman was ki ...
. A 956 CE Chandela inscription in
Khajuraho
Khajuraho () is a city, near Chhatarpur in Chhatarpur district of the Indian state of Madhya Pradesh. One of the most popular tourist destinations in India, Khajuraho has the country's largest group of medieval Hindu and Jain temples, famous f ...
states that Yashovarman was the God of death for the Malavas (that is Paramaras, the rulers of Malwa region). Yashovarman extended the Chandela kingdom up to Bhasvat (Vidisha) and Malava river (possibly
Betwa
The Betwa (Hindi: बेतवा, Sanskrit: वेत्रवती) is a river in Central and Northern India, and a tributary of the Yamuna. It rises in the Vindhya Range (Raisen) just north of Narmadapuram in Madhya Pradesh and flows northe ...
) in the west. Based on these facts, it appears that Siyaka had to face a defeat against the Chandelas.
Sack of Manyakheta
In 963 CE, the Rashtrakuta king Krishna III led a second expedition of northern India. The 965 CE and 968 CE inscriptions of his
Western Ganga feudatory Marasimha state that their forces destroyed
Ujjayani, a major city of the Malwa region. Based on this, historians such as
A. S. Altekar
Anant Sadashiv Altekar (24 September 1898 – 25 November 1960; ) was a historian, archaeologist, and numismatist from Maharashtra, India. He was the Manindra Chandra Nandy's Professor and Head of the Department of Ancient Indian History and Cu ...
theorize that Siyaka had rebelled against the Rashtrakutas, resulting in a military campaign against him. However, K. N. Seth believes that Ujjain was under
Gurjara-Pratihara
The Gurjara-Pratihara was a dynasty that ruled much of Hindustan, Northern India from the mid-8th to the 11th century. They ruled first at Ujjain and later at Kannauj.
The Gurjara-Pratiharas were instrumental in containing Arab armies moving ...
rule at this time, and Krishna III's campaign was directed against them: there is no evidence to show that Siyaka rebelled against Krishna III or faced a battle against his forces.
After the death of Krishna III in c. 967 CE, the Rashtrakuta power started declining. His successor
Khottiga
Khottiga or Amoghavarsha IV (ruled 967–972 CE), who bore the title ''Nityavarsha'', was a ruler of the Rashtrakuta Empire. During this period the Rashtrakutas started to decline. The Paramara King Siyaka II plundered Manyakheta and Khottiga di ...
, probably wary of the growing Paramara power, fought a battle against Siyaka. The battle was fought at Khalighatta on the banks of the
Narmada River. Khottiga appears to have been the aggressor in this battle, as it was fought closer to the traditional Paramara territory. Siyaka was victorious, although he lost his
Vagada
Vagad (also known as Vagar, Hindi: वागड) is a region in southeastern Rajasthan state of western India. Its boundaries are roughly defined by those of the districts of Dungarpur and Banswara. Major cities of the region are Dungarpur and B ...
feudatory Kanka (or Chachha) in the battle.
After the battle, Siyaka pursued Khottiga's retreating forces to the Rashtrakuta capital
Manyakheta
Malkhed originally known as Manyakheta (IAST: Mānyakheṭa, Prakrit: "Mannakheḍa"), and also known as Malkhed,Village code= 311400 Malkhed (J), Gulbarga, Karnataka is a town in Karnataka, India. It is located on the banks of Kagina river i ...
, and sacked that city. The Udaipur ''prashasti'' states that Siyaka was as fierce as
garuda
Garuda (Sanskrit: ; Pāli: ; Vedic Sanskrit: गरुळ Garuḷa) is a Hindu demigod and divine creature mentioned in the Hindu, Buddhist and Jain faiths. He is primarily depicted as the mount (''vahana'') of the Hindu god Vishnu. Garuda is a ...
when he took the wealth of Khottiga in battle. This event happened in 972-973 CE, as suggested by the poet Dhanapala, who states that he wrote ''Paiyalacchi-namamala'' when the lord of Malava was looting Manyakheta. Siyaka's victory led to the decline of the Rashtrakutas, and the establishment of the Paramaras as a sovereign power in Malwa.
Last years
At its zenith, Siyaka's kingdom extended from
Banswara
Banswara is a city in the Banswara district in southern Rajasthan, India. The name, Banswara, came from "Bans wala" (bamboo) forests, as Bamboo grew in abundance around this place within the area.
Banswara is also known as "City of a Hundred ...
in north to the
Narmada River in south, and from Khetaka-mandala (present-day
Kheda
Kheda, also known as Kaira, is a city and a municipality in the Indian state of Gujarat. It was former administrative capital of Kheda district. India's First Deputy Prime Minister Vallabhbhai Patel Was Born In Kheda District of Gujarat State.K ...
/
Mahi River
The Mahi is a river in western India. It rises in Madhya Pradesh and, after flowing through the Vagad region of Rajasthan, enters Gujarat and flows into the Arabian Sea. It is one of the relatively few west-flowing rivers in India, alongside the ...
) in the west to
Vidisha
Vidisha (विदिशा, formerly known as Bhelsa and known as Besnagar in ancient times) is a city in central Madhya Pradesh, India. It is located 62.5 km northeast of the state capital, Bhopal. The name "Vidisha" is derived from th ...
area (
Betwa River
The Betwa (Hindi: बेतवा, Sanskrit: वेत्रवती) is a river in Central and Northern India, and a tributary of the Yamuna. It rises in the Vindhya Range (Raisen) just north of Narmadapuram in Madhya Pradesh and flows north ...
) in the east.
According to the Paramara court poet Padmagupta, Siyaka was a
Rajarshi
Rajarishi () is a title in Hinduism and Hindu mythology, referring to a sage who hails from a royal background.
Description
A rajarishi may be described to be a king (raja) who adopted a path of devotion, thereby becoming a royal sage (rishi). A ...
("king-sage"): he
retired as an ascetic, after which he wore clothes made of grass. ''Tilaka-Manjari'', a work composed by Dhanapala (the court poet of Siyaka's son Munja), suggests that Siyaka was a devotee of the goddess
Lakshmi
Lakshmi (; , sometimes spelled Laxmi, ), also known as Shri (, ), is one of the principal goddesses in Hinduism. She is the goddess of wealth, fortune, power, beauty, fertility and prosperity, and associated with ''Maya'' ("Illusion"). Alo ...
(''Sri'').
Siyaka and his queen Vadaja had two sons:
Munja-raja (alias Vakpati) and
Sindhu-raja. Siyaka sacked Manyakheta in c. 972 CE, and his successor Munja's earliest inscription is dated 974 CE, so Siyaka must have retired or died somewhere between 972 and 974 CE.
Inscriptions
Find spot
Provenance (from the French ''provenir'', 'to come from/forth') is the chronology of the ownership, custody or location of a historical object. The term was originally mostly used in relation to works of art but is now used in similar senses i ...
s of the inscriptions from Siyaka's reign" width="350" height="350" zoom="6" longitude="73" latitude="23">
Following inscriptions of Siyaka have been discovered. All of these record grants, and are written in
.
This inscription, issued on 31 January 949 CE, was discovered in the possession of a Visnagar Brahmin of
in the 20th century. It suggests that Siyaka was a Rashtrakuta feudatory in his early years. It records the grants of two villages to a
). The villages - Kumbharotaka and Sihaka - are identified with the modern villages of Kamrod and Sika.The dapaka or the officer-in-charge of registering the grants was a Thakkura named Vishnu.
This fragmentary inscription, issued on 14 October 969 CE, was in the possession of a resident of
in the early 20th century. He presented it to
of Ahmedabad's Gujarat Puratatva Mandir in 1920.
The inscription originally comprised two copper plates, of which only the second one is now available. The inscription records a grant, but the exact nature of this grant cannot be determined from the 10-line second plate. The plate depicts a Garuda (the Paramara royal emblem) in human form, about to strike a snake held in its left arm. Below the Garuda is the
of the king. The name of the ''dapaka'' (the officer-in-charge of registering the grants) is mentioned as Kaṇhapaika. The same name appears in the 974 CE Dharmapuri grant of Siyaka's son Munja.