VOKS (an

acronym An acronym is a word or name formed from the initial components of a longer name or phrase. Acronyms are usually formed from the initial letters of words, as in ''NATO'' (''North Atlantic Treaty Organization''), but sometimes use syllables, as ...

for the Russian ''Vsesoiuznoe Obshchestvo Kul'turnoi Sviazi s zagranitsei'' — Всесоюзное общество культурной связи с заграницей, All-Union Society for Cultural Relations with Foreign Countries), or the Society of Cultural Relations with the Soviet Union, was an entity created by the government of the

Soviet Union The Soviet Union,. officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. (USSR),. was a transcontinental country that spanned much of Eurasia from 1922 to 1991. A flagship communist state, it was nominally a federal union of fifteen national ...

(USSR) in 1925 to promote international cultural contact between writers, composers, musicians, cinematographers, artists, scientists, educators, and athletes of the USSR with those of other countries. The organization conducted tours and conferences of such cultural workers. Although of Soviet origin, VOKS was in fact an international organization, with parallel national branches around the world, such as the American Society for Cultural Relations with Russia (established 1926) and the Society for Polish-Soviet Friendship (established 1944). VOKS was frequently criticized by Western government officials, public intellectuals, and the press for functioning as a ''de facto''

communist propaganda Communist propaganda is the artistic and social promotion of the ideology of communism, communist worldview, communist society, and interests of the communist movement. While it tends to carry a negative connotation in the Western world, the t ...

organization. VOKS was restructured and renamed in 1958, replaced by a new friendship organization known as the Union of Soviet Societies for Friendship and Cultural Relations with Foreign Countries, which continued to exist until 1992.

Organizational history

Establishment and structure

VOKS, the All-Union Society for Cultural Relations with Foreign Countries, was established in Moscow in 1925 as a mechanism to coordinate cultural contact between Soviet cultural workers and intellectuals and their peers in the capitalist countries of the West. Planning for the organization seems to have begun in May 1925, with a formal constitution for the society approved by a decree of the

Council of People's Commissars The Councils of People's Commissars (SNK; russian: Совет народных комиссаров (СНК), ''Sovet narodnykh kommissarov''), commonly known as the ''Sovnarkom'' (Совнарком), were the highest executive authorities of ...

dated August 8 of that same year.O.D. Kameneva, "Cultural Rapprochement: The U.S.S.R. Society for Cultural Relations with Foreign Countries," ''Pacific Affairs,'' vol. 1, no. 5 (Oct. 1928), pg. 6. According to this formal public document, VOKS was intended "to cooperate in the establishment and development of scientific and cultural relations between institutions, public organizations and individual scientific and cultural workers in the USSR and those of other countries." VOKS was subdivided by field of interest into a number of sections, including a Literary Section concentrating upon publishers and authors; a Musical and Theatrical Section for composers, musicians, actors, and playwrights; a Cinema Section for cinematographers and those concerned with film production; a Juridical Section dealing with matters of interest to jurists; and an Exhibition Section to deal with the presentation of international expositions relating to art and literature.Kameneva, "Cultural Rapprochement," pg. 7. VOKS also maintained a Press Department, which published an organ called the ''Weekly News Bulletin'' in Russian, English, French, and German.Kameneva, "Cultural Rapprochement," pg. 8.

Official function

The organization had both international and domestic functions, managing the activities of a growing number of "societies of friends of the Soviet Union" around the world as well as gathering information about cultural trends in the West and sponsoring direct contract between Soviet and non-Soviet cultural workers and intellectuals.Michael David-Fox, "From Illusory 'Society' to Intellectual 'Public': VOKS, International Travel and Party-Intelligentsia Relations in the Interwar Period," ''Contemporary European History,'' vol. 11, no. 1 (Feb. 2002), pg. 10. From its earliest days VOKS coordinated cultural, scientific, and literary exchanges and was the organization which frequently received prominent visitors to the Soviet Union from the West and arranged their contacts with Soviet peers. Inside the USSR, the organization facilitated the importation and translation of foreign scientific and literary texts and organized public presentations by artists and scholars returning from trips to the West. The society also helped with currency transfers to enable Soviet scholars to join foreign academic societies, expedited the acquisition of travel visas, and assisted with the difficult process of receiving foreign books and journals through the USSR's tight net of internal censorship. Although officially launched by the Council of People's Commissars and maintaining close connections with both the

People's Commissariat of Foreign Affairs The Ministry of External Relations (MER) of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) (russian: Министерство иностранных дел СССР) was founded on 6 July 1923. It had three names during its existence: People's Co ...

and the

secret police Secret police (or political police) are intelligence, security or police agencies that engage in covert operations against a government's political, religious, or social opponents and dissidents. Secret police organizations are characteristic of ...

, VOKS consistently maintained the pretext of being an independent "society" rather than an official appendage of the Soviet state apparatus.David-Fox, "From Illusory 'Society' to Intellectual 'Public,'" pg. 11. This semi-independent status was accentuated by the inclusion of significant numbers of non-Party intellectuals within its membership ranks.

Propaganda function

A key aspect of VOKS was its ability to put forward articulate intellectuals to defend the Russian revolution and the Soviet system in an international setting. VOKS-sponsored scientists, artists, and educators reached the general public through lectures, exhibitions, and other forms of public interaction, and were also instrumental in maintaining Moscow's influence over the network of so-called "friendship societies" across Europe and around the world, putting a learned and cultured face on a sometimes brutal revolutionary reality. VOKS sponsored artistic exhibitions, cultural exchanges, concerts, tours, lectures, and sporting events which helped to cast the USSR in a positive and humane light. The society also published travel guides in English, German, and French and made efforts to solve problems and expedite contacts for foreigners traveling in the Soviet Union.David-Fox, "From Illusory 'Society' to Intellectual 'Public,'" pg. 13. The successes and prestige of VOKS abroad seem to have additionally had a positive impact on shaping the attitudes of the Soviet intelligentsia during the 1920s, building support among the sometimes feisty artistic community for the new regime. The organization also served as an effective front for the Soviet Union's foreign intelligence operations, as historian

Svetlana Chervonnaya Svetlana Alexandrovna Chervonnaya (Russian: Светлана Aлександровна Червонная, born October 14, 1948) is a Russian historian specializing in the political history of the Cold War period and Soviet espionage activities i ...

notes:

However, VOKS also often served as a convenient 'roof' for operations of both branches of Soviet intelligence, whose residents and operatives used opportunities provided by VOKS to establish and maintain contacts in intellectual, scientific and government circles. These contacts were, for the most part, unaware that they were dealing not with 'cultural representatives' and diplomats, but with intelligence officers.

Leadership

The leading figure in VOKS from the time of its establishment until 1930 was

Olga Kameneva Olga Davidovna Kameneva (russian: Ольга Давыдовна Каменева, uk, Ольга Давидiвна Каменева; 1883 – 11 September 1941) (née Bronstein — Бронште́йн) was a Russian Bolshevik revolutionary and ...

, the sister of prominent

Bolshevik The Bolsheviks (russian: Большевики́, from большинство́ ''bol'shinstvó'', 'majority'),; derived from ''bol'shinstvó'' (большинство́), "majority", literally meaning "one of the majority". also known in English ...

Leon Trotsky Lev Davidovich Bronstein. ( – 21 August 1940), better known as Leon Trotsky; uk, link= no, Лев Давидович Троцький; also transliterated ''Lyev'', ''Trotski'', ''Trotskij'', ''Trockij'' and ''Trotzky''. (), was a Russian ...

and wife of Soviet leader

Lev Kamenev Lev Borisovich Kamenev. (''né'' Rozenfeld; – 25 August 1936) was a Bolshevik revolutionary and a prominent Soviet politician. Born in Moscow to parents who were both involved in revolutionary politics, Kamenev attended Imperial Moscow Uni ...

. Kameneva was followed in 1930 by Fedor Nikolaevich Petrov, a college educated Old Bolshevik scientist who had worked previously in the Soviet bureaucracy as the head of the Main Directorate for Scientific, Artistic, Museum, Theatrical, and Literary Institutions and Organizations (Glavnauka), under the

People's Commissariat for Education The People's Commissariat for Education (or Narkompros; russian: Народный комиссариат просвещения, Наркомпрос, directly translated as the "People's Commissariat for Enlightenment") was the Soviet agency charge ...

. In 1934 Petrov was replaced as head of VOKS by Alekander Arosev, a writer and former Ambassador to

Czechoslovakia , rue, Чеськословеньско, , yi, טשעכאסלאוואקיי, , common_name = Czechoslovakia , life_span = 1918–19391945–1992 , p1 = Austria-Hungary , image_p1 ...

who was a longtime acquaintance of Joseph Stalin's right-hand man, V.M. Molotov. Arosev would run afoul of the

in 1937 during the Terror of 1937-38. He was replaced by Viktor Fedorovich Smirnov, who remained as head of VOKS until 1940. Viktor Smirnov would be followed by just three other chairs of VOKS and its successor organization during the entire decades of the 1940s, 1950s, and 1960s, and the first half of the 1970s —

Vladimir Kemenov Vladimir Semyonovich Kemenov (; 2 June 1908 – 14 June 1988) was a Soviet art historian and statesman who headed the VOKS for the USSR in the 1940s. Life and career He was born in Yekaterinoslav (now Dnipro). In 1940, he succeeded Viktor ...

(1940 to 1948), Andrei Denisov (1948 to 1957), and Nina Popova (1957 to 1975).

VOKS in the 1950s

By 1957 so-called "friendship societies" had been established in 47 countries, all of which were coordinated by VOKS.Svetlana Chervonnaya
"VOKS,"
Documents Talk: A Non-definitive History, 2008, www.documentstalk.com/ In America, VOKS gained new notoriety in the 1950s when U.S. Senator

Joseph McCarthy Joseph Raymond McCarthy (November 14, 1908 – May 2, 1957) was an American politician who served as a Republican U.S. Senator from the state of Wisconsin from 1947 until his death in 1957. Beginning in 1950, McCarthy became the most visi ...

accused journalist

Edward R. Murrow Edward Roscoe Murrow (born Egbert Roscoe Murrow; April 25, 1908 – April 27, 1965) was an American broadcast journalist and war correspondent. He first gained prominence during World War II with a series of live radio broadcasts from Europe f ...

of colluding with the organization on the

CBS CBS Broadcasting Inc., commonly shortened to CBS, the abbreviation of its former legal name Columbia Broadcasting System, is an American commercial broadcast television and radio network serving as the flagship property of the CBS Entertainm ...

television program ''

See It Now ''See It Now'' is an American newsmagazine and documentary series broadcast by CBS from 1951 to 1958. It was created by Edward R. Murrow and Fred W. Friendly, with Murrow as the host of the show. From 1952 to 1957, ''See It Now'' won four Emmy ...

.''

From VOKS to SSOD

In 1958, VOKS was reorganized as a new entity called the Union of Soviet Societies for Friendship and Cultural Contacts (SSOD). The new SSOD continued to fulfill the role previously played by VOKS until it was disbanded in 1992, in the aftermath of the

dissolution of the Soviet Union The dissolution of the Soviet Union, also negatively connoted as rus, Разва́л Сове́тского Сою́за, r=Razvál Sovétskogo Soyúza, ''Ruining of the Soviet Union''. was the process of internal disintegration within the Sov ...

in December of the previous year. An official government agency for international cultural affairs followed in the post-communist period, called since 1994 the "Russian Center for International Scientific and Cultural Cooperation of the Government of the Russian Federation."

Overseas counterparts

Society for Cultural Relations (UK)

Known as the SCR, the Society for Cultural Relations between the Peoples of the British Commonwealth and the Union of Socialist Soviet Republics was founded in London in 1924 by leading intellectuals of the time. It may have served as a prompt for the USSR to found VOKS in response to their initiative. OBJECTS OF THE S.C.R. 1. To collect and diffuse information in both countries on developments in Science, Education, Philosophy, Art, Literature, and Social and Economic Life. 2. To organise lectures and an interchange of lecturers, conferences, exhibitions, etc., and to arrange for the publication and translation of papers and books. 3. To provide opportunities for social intercourse. 4. To take any action deemed desirable to forward the intellectual and technical progress of both peoples. The initial officers were: PRESIDENT: Prof. L. T. Hobhouse, Litt.D., LL.D. VICE-PRESIDENTS: Prof. Lascelles Abercrombie, E. M. Forster, David Garnett, Julian Huxley, Prof. A. A. Ivanov, J. M. Keynes, Prof. A. N. Kriloff, Dr. V. P. Lebedeff, Dr. Albert Mansbridge, N. M. Minsky, Prof. M. N. Pokrovsky, Prof. W. A. Stekloff, H. G. Wells, Mrs. Virginia Woolf, Prof. O. J. Schmidt EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE: Chairman: Miss Llewelyn Davies. Vice-Chairman: Miss A. Ruth Fry. Hon. Treasurer: Henry J. May. Hon. Secretary: Mrs. Catherine Rabinovich. Members: Ashley Dukes, L. F. Gueruss, Dr. V. N. Polovtsev, A. F. Rothstein, Mme. Z. Vengerova, Leonard S. Woolf. The Society is still in existence, although political changes have caused a change of name to: Society for Co-operation in Russian and Soviet Studies (SCRSS). It has its own building, and houses several specialized libraries, archives and picture collections. It organizes regular lectures and Russia-themed events. The website is: http://www.scrss.org.uk/index.htm

American Society for Cultural Relations with Russia

The American Society for Cultural Relations with Russia was established 1926 and organized in 1927, with offices at 49 East 25th Street, New York, NY. In the exchange of books on cultural and technical subjects with learned societies, universities and Government departments in foreign countries has reached considerable proportions, the USA sent more than 48,000 volumes, representing some 60 percent of the exchange. As of 1928, members included: * Officers: ** President:

William Allan Neilson William Allan Neilson (28 March 1869 – 1946) was a Scottish-American educator, writer and lexicographer, graduated in the University of Edinburgh in 1891 and became a PhD in Harvard University in 1898. He was president of Smith College betwe ...

** Vice Presidents:

John Dewey John Dewey (; October 20, 1859 – June 1, 1952) was an American philosopher, psychologist, and educational reformer whose ideas have been influential in education and social reform. He was one of the most prominent American scholars in the f ...

, Stephen P. Duggan,

Floyd Dell Floyd James Dell (June 28, 1887 – July 23, 1969) was an American newspaper and magazine editor, literary critic, novelist, playwright, and poet. Dell has been called "one of the most flamboyant, versatile and influential American Men of Letters ...

Leopold Stokowski Leopold Anthony Stokowski (18 April 1882 – 13 September 1977) was a British conductor. One of the leading conductors of the early and mid-20th century, he is best known for his long association with the Philadelphia Orchestra and his appear ...

, Lillian D. Wald ** Treasurer:

Allen Wardwell Allen Wardwell (1873–1953), was an American attorney and banking law expert who was the vice president of the American-Russian Chamber of Commerce in 1929, and a name partner of Davis Polk & Wardwell. Education Wardwell graduated from Yale Univ ...

** Secretary: Lucy Branham * Board: ** Chairman of the Executive Committee: Graham R. Taylor ** Members: Thomas L. Cotton, Jerome Davis,

Ernestine Evans Ernestine Evans (August 9, 1889 – July 3, 1967) was an American journalist, editor, author and literary agent. Life Born in Omaha, Nebraska, she lived in Elkhart, Indiana during her childhood and attended the University of Chicago, receivi ...

, Mrs.

Norman Hapgood Norman Hapgood (March 28, 1868 – April 29, 1937) was an American writer, journalist, editor, and critic, and an American Minister to Denmark. Biography Norman Hapgood was born March 28, 1868 in Chicago, Illinois to Charles Hutchins Hapgood ( ...

Arthur Garfield Hays Arthur Garfield Hays (December 12, 1881 – December 14, 1954) was an American lawyer and champion of civil liberties issues, best known as a co-founder and general counsel of the American Civil Liberties Union and for participating in notable ca ...

Horace Liveright Horace Brisbin Liveright (pronounced "LIVE-right," anglicized by Horace's father from the German ''Liebrecht;'' 10 December 1884 – 24 September 1933) was an American publisher and stage producer. With Albert Boni, he founded the Modern Lib ...

Underhill Moore William Underhill Moore (1879–1949) was an American legal scholar and Sterling Professor of Law at the Yale Law School (1929–49), having previously taught at Columbia. His principal teaching fields were commercial bank credit and business organi ...

, Ernest M. Patterson, James N. Rosenbeg,

Lee Simonson Lee Simonson (June 26, 1888, New York City – January 23, 1967, Yonkers) was an American architect painter, stage setting designer. He acted as a stage set designer for the Washington Square Players (1915–1917). When it became the Theatre G ...

Edgard Varese Edgard may refer to the following: * Edgard, Louisiana *Edgard Félix Pierre Jacobs *Edgard Varèse See also *Eadgar (disambiguation) *Edgar (disambiguation) *Edgardo Edgardo is an Italian-language form of the name Edgar. It may refer to: * Edg ...

, above-mentioned officers * Executive Committee: Thomas L. Cotton, Stephen P. Duggan, Ernestine Evans, Mrs. Norman Hapgood, Lee Simonson, Graham R. Taylor, Lillian D. Wald, Allen Wardwell * Advisory Council:

Jane Addams Laura Jane Addams (September 6, 1860 May 21, 1935) was an American settlement activist, reformer, social worker, sociologist, public administrator, and author. She was an important leader in the history of social work and women's suffrage ...

Carl Alsberg Carl L. Alsberg (April 2, 1877 – October 31, 1940) was an American chemist who served as Commissioner of Food and Drugs from 1912 to 1921. Carl Lucas Alsberg was born to a secular German-Jewish family, the oldest of four children. His father Me ...

Franz Boas Franz Uri Boas (July 9, 1858 – December 21, 1942) was a German-American anthropologist and a pioneer of modern anthropology who has been called the "Father of American Anthropology". His work is associated with the movements known as historical ...

, Phillips Bradley, Stuart Chase,

Haven Emerson Haven Emerson (1896-1957) was an American educator. Biography Emerson was educated at Harvard University and Columbia University's College of Physicians & Surgeons (P&S), where he later served as an associate in physiology and medicine. During hi ...

Zona Gale Zona Gale, also known by her married name, Zona Gale Breese (August 26, 1874 – December 27, 1938), was an American novelist, short story writer, and playwright. She became the first woman to win the Pulitzer Prize for Drama in 1921. The close r ...

, Frank Goler, Mrs. J. Borden Harrison,

David Starr Jordan David Starr Jordan (January 19, 1851 – September 19, 1931) was the founding president of Stanford University, serving from 1891 to 1913. He was an ichthyologist during his research career. Prior to serving as president of Stanford Univer ...

Alexander Kaun Alexander is a male given name. The most prominent bearer of the name is Alexander the Great, the king of the Ancient Greek kingdom of Macedonia who created one of the largest empires in ancient history. Variants listed here are Aleksandar, Al ...

, Susan Kingsbury,

Julia Lathrop Julia Clifford Lathrop (June 29, 1858 – April 15, 1932) was an American social reformer in the area of education, social policy, and children's welfare. As director of the United States Children's Bureau from 1912 to 1922, she was the first wo ...

William Allen White William Allen White (February 10, 1868 – January 29, 1944) was an American newspaper editor, politician, author, and leader of the Progressive movement. Between 1896 and his death, White became a spokesman for middle America. At a 193 ...

Eva Le Gallienne Eva Le Gallienne (January 11, 1899 – June 3, 1991) was a British-born American stage actress, producer, director, translator, and author. A Broadway star by age 21, Le Gallienne gave up her Broadway appearances to devote herself to founding t ...

, Howard Scott Liddell, E. C. Lindeman
Robert Littell
H. Adolphus Miller,

Boardman Robinson Boardman Michael Robinson (1876–1952) was a Canadian-American painter, illustrator and cartoonist. Biography Early years Boardman Robinson was born September 6, 1876 in Nova Scotia. He spent his childhood in England and Canada, before mov ...

, Clarence C. Stein, Lucy Textor, Wilbur K. Thomas, Harry Ward, Lucy Wilson

Polish–Soviet Friendship Society The Polish–Soviet Friendship Society () was a Polish organisation founded in 1944. It was a vehicle for organized propaganda, like the celebration of anniversaries of the October Revolution, trips to the Soviet Union, exchange programs, promo ...

The Society for Polish-Soviet Friendship (in Polish, Towarzystwo Przyjaźni Polsko-Radzieckiej or TPPR) was established 1944.

Legacy

The papers of VOKS are housed in Moscow at the

State Archive of the Russian Federation The State Archive of the Russian Federation (GARF) (russian: Государственный архив Российской Федерации (ГАРФ)) is a large Russian state archive managed by Rosarkhiv (the Federal Archival Agency of R ...

(GARF).