Uvala is originally a local
toponym
Toponymy, toponymics, or toponomastics is the study of ''toponyms'' ( proper names of places, also known as place names and geographic names), including their origins, meanings, usage and types. Toponym is the general term for a proper name of ...
used by people in some regions in
Slovenia
Slovenia ( ; sl, Slovenija ), officially the Republic of Slovenia (Slovene: , abbr.: ''RS''), is a country in Central Europe. It is bordered by Italy to the west, Austria to the north, Hungary to the northeast, Croatia to the southeast, and ...
,
Croatia
, image_flag = Flag of Croatia.svg
, image_coat = Coat of arms of Croatia.svg
, anthem = " Lijepa naša domovino"("Our Beautiful Homeland")
, image_map =
, map_caption =
, capi ...
,
Bosnia and Herzegovina
Bosnia and Herzegovina ( sh, / , ), abbreviated BiH () or B&H, sometimes called Bosnia–Herzegovina and often known informally as Bosnia, is a country at the crossroads of south and southeast Europe, located in the Balkans. Bosnia and ...
,
Montenegro
)
, image_map = Europe-Montenegro.svg
, map_caption =
, image_map2 =
, capital = Podgorica
, coordinates =
, largest_city = capital
, official_languages = ...
and
Serbia
Serbia (, ; Serbian: , , ), officially the Republic of Serbia ( Serbian: , , ), is a landlocked country in Southeastern and Central Europe, situated at the crossroads of the Pannonian Basin and the Balkans. It shares land borders with Hu ...
. In geosciences it denotes a closed
karst
Karst is a topography formed from the dissolution of soluble rocks such as limestone, Dolomite (rock), dolomite, and gypsum. It is characterized by underground drainage systems with sinkholes and caves. It has also been documented for more weathe ...
depression, a
terrain
Terrain or relief (also topographical relief) involves the vertical and horizontal dimensions of land surface. The term bathymetry is used to describe underwater relief, while hypsometry studies terrain relative to sea level. The Latin word ...
form usually of elongated or compound structure and of larger size than that of
sinkhole
A sinkhole is a depression or hole in the ground caused by some form of collapse of the surface layer. The term is sometimes used to refer to doline, enclosed depressions that are locally also known as ''vrtače'' and shakeholes, and to openi ...
s. It is a morphological form frequently found in the "Outer
Dinarides
The Dinaric Alps (), also Dinarides, are a mountain range in Southern and Southcentral Europe, separating the continental Balkan Peninsula from the Adriatic Sea. They stretch from Italy in the northwest through Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herz ...
" anywhere between
Slovenia
Slovenia ( ; sl, Slovenija ), officially the Republic of Slovenia (Slovene: , abbr.: ''RS''), is a country in Central Europe. It is bordered by Italy to the west, Austria to the north, Hungary to the northeast, Croatia to the southeast, and ...
and
Greece
Greece,, or , romanized: ', officially the Hellenic Republic, is a country in Southeast Europe. It is situated on the southern tip of the Balkans, and is located at the crossroads of Europe, Asia, and Africa. Greece shares land borders wi ...
. But large closed karst depressions are found on all continents in different landscapes and therefore uvala has become a globally established term, used also to distinguish such depressions from
polje
A polje, also karst polje or karst field, is a large flat plain found in karstic geological regions of the world, with areas usually . The name derives from the Slavic languages and literally means 'field', whereas in English ''polje'' specif ...
s (size of many km). Definitions of uvalas are often poorly empirically supported. "The coalescence of dolines" is a most frequently found and still dominant explanation. Yet because of the ongoing dissatisfaction with this definition the term 'uvala' has often been belittled – occasionally it was even proposed that the term be given up altogether.
However, recent empirical research (~2009) revised poor mainstream definitions, stating that "…uvalas are large (in km scale) karst closed depressions of irregular or elongated plan form resulting from accelerated corrosion along major tectonically broken zones." This is arguing for the "re-introducing of uvalas into modern karstology" – distinguishing them from dolines and poljes in size (typically) and "also in morphology and combination of genetic factors", which give them "a status of a particular karst relief form."
Uvalas in early karstology
Thanks to the research work of the Serbian geographer
Jovan Cvijić
Jovan Cvijić ( sr-cyr, Јован Цвијић, ; 1865 – 16 January 1927) was a Serbian geographer and ethnologist, president of the Serbian Royal Academy of Sciences and rector of the University of Belgrade. Cvijić is considered th ...
(1865–1927), the protégé of
Albrecht Penck
Albrecht Penck (25 September 1858 – 7 March 1945) was a German geographer and geologist and the father of Walther Penck.
Biography
Born in Reudnitz near Leipzig, Penck became a university professor in Vienna, Austria, from 1885 to 1906, a ...
(the Nestor of the Vienna School of Physical Geography), the word uvala – like the words 'karst', 'dolina' or 'polje', popular terms of the Dinarides – became an established international standard. As the father of Karst Morphology and Hydrogeology, Cvijić envisioned the phenomena of karstology in his publications, first in regions of Europe and then all over the world.
Early karstologists like Cvijić (1921) believed the long-term processes of evolution of each karst depression could be explained in cyclic theories:
However, the increasing body of literature and data collected on karst on all continents, and the global insight that climate ought to be considered as an essential genetic factor in all karst analysis, raised growing concern that this definition may be unsatisfactory.
The mainstream definitions of uvala
These days most authors consider theories of cyclic karst evolution as outdated or even as untenable. Some authors, while dismissing cyclic theory, at the same time discard the term uvala altogether: "…This mechanism is no longer accepted and the term uvala has fallen into disuse", Lowe&Waltham (1995). In the comprehensive primer 'Karst Hydrogeology and Geomorphology', written by Ford&Williams (2007) for the English oriented world, likewise in their contributions in English encyclopedias, the uvala is simply not a factor in their karst models (uvalas, they claim, are simply very large dolines).
With his influence and publications the internationally renown German morphologist, Herbert Lehmann, put an end to the focus of karstology on warm
temperate climate
In geography, the temperate climates of Earth occur in the middle latitudes (23.5° to 66.5° N/S of Equator), which span between the tropics and the polar regions of Earth. These zones generally have wider temperature ranges throughout ...
. Lehmann in 1973: "Der mediterrane Karst, im engeren Sinne der Dinarische Karst, ist nicht das Musterbeispiel der Karstentwicklung überhaupt, sondern eher Ausnahme", Lehmann (1973/1987) (Dinaric karst is an exception).
Nevertheless, the mainstream position of karstology and especially non-European karstology still dominates with the somewhat singular, empirically unsupported, definition:
For most English textbooks and encyclopedias and additionally some German equivalents the term uvala is straightforward. When only briefly defined, one of the above cited definitions, in most cases Sweeting's (1973), is used. Yet, the definition 'dolines coalescing into uvalas' is logically the first part of the cyclic theory, claimed to having been little used or abolished!
Most scientific monographs however, such as comprehensive empirical studies, confirm the existence of the authentic type of uvala – yet most monographs analyze European objects only, and most are written and published in languages other than English.
Technical sciences progress in support of uvala as a particular relief form?
New contributions of technical sciences
Large closed karst depressions are an important phenomenon on all continents, yet their analysis apart from and beyond dolines is rare. Assessing the potential of new knowledge, especially on the question of the genesis and evolution of large depressions, is very difficult. Possibly the studies of
geological dating
Geochronology is the science of determining the age of rocks, fossils, and sediments using signatures inherent in the rocks themselves. Absolute geochronology can be accomplished through radioactive isotopes, whereas relative geochronology is pr ...
, interdisciplinary
Tectonics
Tectonics (; ) are the processes that control the structure and properties of the Earth's crust and its evolution through time. These include the processes of mountain building, the growth and behavior of the strong, old cores of continents k ...
,
Seismotectonics Seismotectonics is the study of the relationship between the earthquakes, active tectonics and individual faults of a region. It seeks to understand which faults are responsible for seismic activity in an area by analysing a combination of regiona ...
and
Climatology
Climatology (from Greek , ''klima'', "place, zone"; and , '' -logia'') or climate science is the scientific study of Earth's climate, typically defined as weather conditions averaged over a period of at least 30 years. This modern field of stu ...
will open a window to look into earlier periods of evolution.
The recent progress in methods and measuring techniques in the sciences with the regard to geological objects allows 'dating' in dimensions of several hundred thousand or even million years – with high precision.
Some progress in dating was made by ensuring that examined
sediment probes and
fossil
A fossil (from Classical Latin , ) is any preserved remains, impression, or trace of any once-living thing from a past geological age. Examples include bones, shells, exoskeletons, stone imprints of animals or microbes, objects preserved ...
s have not only been exposed to surface, where
denudation
Denudation is the geological processes in which moving water, ice, wind, and waves erode the Earth's surface, leading to a reduction in elevation and in relief of landforms and landscapes. Although the terms erosion and denudation are used interc ...
,
weathering
Weathering is the deterioration of rocks, soils and minerals as well as wood and artificial materials through contact with water, atmospheric gases, and biological organisms. Weathering occurs '' in situ'' (on site, with little or no movement ...
or
corrosion
Corrosion is a natural process that converts a refined metal into a more chemically stable oxide. It is the gradual deterioration of materials (usually a metal) by chemical or electrochemical reaction with their environment. Corrosion engi ...
are in effect. Rather "
allochthon
upright=1.6, Schematic overview of a thrust system. The hanging wall block is (when it has reasonable proportions) called a nappe. If an erosional hole is created in the nappe that is called a window (geology)">window. A klippe is a solitary ou ...
ous" objects, objects which were moved and washed into cavities, transported into fissures or caves might be archive elements of early karst activity and tectonic stages of nearby large closed depressions.
Dating with modern techniques in the Swabian Alb
Results for a reliable age were achieved, e.g., by combining
uranium-thorium dating, paleo geological and
paleontological dating in sediment beddings (probes and fossils) inside the cave
:de:Karls- und Bärenhöhle on the
Swabian Alb
The Swabian Jura (german: Schwäbische Alb , more rarely ), sometimes also named Swabian Alps in English, is a mountain range in Baden-Württemberg, Germany, extending from southwest to northeast and in width. It is named after the region of ...
,
Germany
Germany,, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a country in Central Europe. It is the second most populous country in Europe after Russia, and the most populous member state of the European Union. Germany is situated betwee ...
. The
isotope
Isotopes are two or more types of atoms that have the same atomic number (number of protons in their nuclei) and position in the periodic table (and hence belong to the same chemical element), and that differ in nucleon numbers ( mass num ...
-method yielded an age of ca. 450 thousand years (ka). Taking into account fossil analysis, a denudation rate, the local and regional
lithology
The lithology of a rock unit is a description of its physical characteristics visible at outcrop, in hand or core samples, or with low magnification microscopy. Physical characteristics include colour, texture, grain size, and composition. Li ...
and the position of the primeval river cave (now dry) high above the recent valley bottom, the age of the cave was determined to be roughly five million years (Ma), Ufrecht/Abel (2003).
In 2006 fossil remains in sediments of unroofed caves of the Middle Swabian Alb were successfully dated, Ufrecht (2006). The remains of large land-mammals of seven genera were lithologically and bio-
stratigraphically (paleontologically) classified into the
biozone
In biostratigraphy, biostratigraphic units or biozones are intervals of geological strata that are defined on the basis of their characteristic fossil taxa, as opposed to a lithostratigraphic unit which is defined by the lithological properties ...
s MN1 to MN17 of the
European Land Mammal Mega Zones (ELMMZ) table. These found genera overlapped only in MN9, which is ca. eleven Ma.
Dating with modern techniques on the Dinarides
Recent analysis of sediments in caves and unroofed caves of Slovenia produced in some cases ages of . In the
Postojna Cave
Postojna Cave ( sl, Postojnska jama; german: Adelsberger Grotte; it, Grotte di Postumia) is a long karst cave system near Postojna, southwestern Slovenia. It is the second-longest cave system in the country (following the Migovec System) as wel ...
s (Slovenia) the method of
paleomagnetism
Paleomagnetism (or palaeomagnetismsee ), is the study of magnetic fields recorded in rocks, sediment, or archeological materials. Geophysicists who specialize in paleomagnetism are called ''paleomagnetists.''
Certain magnetic minerals in roc ...
in combination with paleontological studies yielded a dating comparable to that on the Swabian Alb. Thus those caves themselves were estimated to have an age of .
Carbonate rocks of the Dinarides are 4500 to 8000 m thick and thus reach deep below the current sea level. There are thousands of caves in the Dinarides. Bakšić (2008) published the systematic exploration of eight shafts on Mt. Velebit, the deepest,
Lukina Jama, explored down to 1431 m, only 83 m above sea level.
Extremely retrospective views: The genetic and evolutionary issue
If an age of karst depressions larger than dolines beyond 2,6 Ma is possible, that is: depression development may possibly have started in
Pliocene
The Pliocene ( ; also Pleiocene) is the epoch in the geologic time scale that extends from 5.333 million to 2.58[Miocene
The Miocene ( ) is the first geological epoch of the Neogene Period and extends from about (Ma). The Miocene was named by Scottish geologist Charles Lyell; the name comes from the Greek words (', "less") and (', "new") and means "less recen ...](_blank)
, then depressions were already formed in Europe's (sub-)tropical climates.
However, even if a very high age of a depression is assumed, which karst form will emerge? "Very similar genetic factors can lead to the development of different forms, depending on the conditions within a karst area", Ćalić (2009) p. 166f.
Uvala revisited: Tectonics. Accelerated corrosion along major tectonically 'broken zones' of regional faults
The geographer Jelena Ćalić, chose to analyze large karst depressions using geomorphological (morphometrical) and
structural geologic mapping methods. This way Ćalić gained more data of tectonically induced subsurface traces. Forty-three large karst depressions (potential uvalas), sampled by shape, size and elevation in the Dinarides of Slovenia, Croatia, 'Bosnia and Herzegovina', Montenegro, and Serbia were analyzed by digital elevation models (DEM) and
field research
Field research, field studies, or fieldwork is the collection of raw data outside a laboratory, library, or workplace setting. The approaches and methods used in field research vary across disciplines. For example, biologists who conduct f ...
. The results were published in English in the journal 'Geomorphology, Amsterdam, 2011', Ćalić (2011). In twelve of the forty-three studied depressions detailed structural-geological mapping (following the method of J. Ćar (2001)) was carried out. This mapping "revealed dominant development of uvalas along tectonically 'broken zones' of regional scale", the 'broken zones' being highly permeable.
The Croatian mountain chain
Velebit
Velebit (; it, Alpi Bebie) is the largest, though not the highest, mountain range in Croatia. The range forms a part of the Dinaric Alps and is located along the Adriatic coast, separating it from Lika in the interior. Velebit begins in the nor ...
is probably the richest area in karstic uvalas of the Dinarides, Poljak (1951) cited by Ćalić (2009) p. 70. The
breccia
Breccia () is a rock composed of large angular broken fragments of minerals or rocks cemented together by a fine-grained matrix.
The word has its origins in the Italian language, in which it means "rubble". A breccia may have a variety of ...
in this chain – there known as Jelar breccia – show very extensive
outcrop
An outcrop or rocky outcrop is a visible exposure of bedrock or ancient superficial deposits on the surface of the Earth.
Features
Outcrops do not cover the majority of the Earth's land surface because in most places the bedrock or superficia ...
ping. These highly permeable carbonate breccias are a prominent feature of "Middle Eocene to Middle Miocene" age faulting activities in the Velebit area, Vlahovic et al. (2012). The deep incision of Velebit's most prominent uvala Lomska Duliba can be explained by the presence of the Jelar breccias, Ćalić (2009), p. 72.
New definition of uvala
Ćalić (2011) defines uvala as follows:
"The term uvala must be excluded from such contexts," (cyclic concepts) "because they discredit its true meaning."
.."At this stage of research, it can be concluded that uvalas are large (in km scale) karst closed depressions of irregular or elongated plan form resulting from accelerated corrosion along major tectonically broken zones. Their bottoms are undulating or pitted with dolines, seldom flattened by
colluvial sediments and always situated above the karst
water table
The water table is the upper surface of the zone of saturation. The zone of saturation is where the pores and fractures of the ground are saturated with water. It can also be simply explained as the depth below which the ground is saturated.
T ...
."
..."…small seasonal sinking streams or, ponds are very rare, an exception rather than a rule."
.."The depressions of this kind are not present on karst levelled surfaces, but only in areas with more or less dissected relief;"
..they "are forms of accelerated corrosion – not as points as dolines, but 'linear' or 'areal'
.."Ćalić (2009) and Ćalić (2011).
:Ćalić in a nut shell: There are deficits in most previous uvala-definitions. The revision was overdue. It re-introduces uvalas into modern karstology!
The second edition of the 'Encyclopedia of Caves', Culver&White (2012), amongst others, added the keyword 'Dinaric Karst, Geography and Geology', Zupan Hanja (2012), while U. Sauro revised his keyword 'Closed Depressions' – in part, so that both authors now fully endorse Ćalić's revival of the term karstic uvala.
Do uvalas have global relevance?
Ćalić's work and resulting definition affirms that Dinaric uvalas are karst forms in their own right. The question remains whether this is relevant globally and in different climates. Possibly the postulate of Lehmann (1973/1987) that Dinaric Karst is not representative for karst worldwide (see above), with respect to uvalas must be re-examined.
In the comprehensive karst modelling of Ford&Williams (2007) uvalas are irrelevant. Yet, they consider the term uvala indispensable and use it no less than six times to describe karst phenomena found in different epochs, climates and regions of various continents, in some cases with reference to other authors.
A German publication lists fifty-seven '
Karstwannen' on the Swabian Alb, Bayer&Groschopf (1989). Together with a few more on the karstic
Franconian Jura
The Franconian Jura ( , , or ) is an upland in Franconia, Bavaria, Germany. Located between two rivers, the Danube in the south and the Main in the north, its peaks reach elevations of up to and it has an area of some 7053.8 km2. Emil Meyn ...
, there may well be about 70 large depressions, half of which are 1000-4500m in length. According to Bayer&Groschopf, p. 182 "
..sind Karstwannen eher mit Uvalas denn mit Poljes zu korrelieren,
..entsprechen von der geomorphologischen Ausformung dem Uvala Charakter." (They correlate with uvalas rather than with poljes,
..they correspond to geomorphological forms of uvalas).
Pfeiffer (2010) discusses Karstwannen ("Karst depression","Uvala"," Polje") of the Swabian Alb, the Franconian Jura and those of the
Causses
The Causses () are a group of limestone plateaus (700–1,200 m) in the Massif Central. They are bordered to the north-west by the Limousin (région), Limousin and the Périgord uplands, and to the east by the Aubrac and the Cévennes. Large river ...
(southern France). "Die Karstwannen sind eigenständige Formen, die eine zeitweise großflächige Tieferlegung der Gesteinsoberfläche belegen", S. 210 (Karstwannen are a distinctive form element, confirming, there was a phase of extensive lowering of the rocky plane). Yet considering the terms uvala or polje, he is undecided, mainly because
*of his own findings of shapes,
* "Die Wannen weisen zum Teil sehr mächtige Füllungen auf, die regional sehr unterschiedlich sind und eine Spanne von tertiären Sedimenten über quartäre periglaziale Schichten bis hin zu
Kolluvium umfassen", S. 212 (Some of the Wannen have tremendous fillings. The size of the fillings differs from region to region. There are sediments of various ages, ranging from
tertiary
Tertiary ( ) is a widely used but obsolete term for the geologic period from 66 million to 2.6 million years ago.
The period began with the demise of the non-avian dinosaurs in the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event, at the start ...
to
quaternary
The Quaternary ( ) is the current and most recent of the three periods of the Cenozoic Era in the geologic time scale of the International Commission on Stratigraphy (ICS). It follows the Neogene Period and spans from 2.58 million year ...
periglacial sediments or even
colluvium
Colluvium (also colluvial material or colluvial soil) is a general name for loose, unconsolidated sediments that have been deposited at the base of hillslopes by either rainwash, sheetwash, slow continuous downslope creep, or a variable combinati ...
).
* the lack of correspondence with the mainstream-definition,
* the very sparse literature on a West- or Central European feature of the kind.
Large areas of the
Alps
The Alps () ; german: Alpen ; it, Alpi ; rm, Alps ; sl, Alpe . are the highest and most extensive mountain range system that lies entirely in Europe, stretching approximately across seven Alpine countries (from west to east): France, Sw ...
, those flanking the central massive on the north and the south (
Northern Limestone Alps
The Northern Limestone Alps (german: Nördliche Kalkalpen), also called the Northern Calcareous Alps, are the ranges of the Eastern Alps north of the Central Eastern Alps located in Austria and the adjacent Bavarian lands of southeastern Germa ...
,
Southern Limestone Alps
The Southern Limestone Alps ( it, Alpi Sud-orientali, german: Südliche Kalkalpen), also called the Southern Calcareous Alps, are the ranges of the Eastern Alps south of the Central Eastern Alps mainly located in northern Italy and the adjacen ...
), geologically consist of
limestone
Limestone ( calcium carbonate ) is a type of carbonate sedimentary rock which is the main source of the material lime. It is composed mostly of the minerals calcite and aragonite, which are different crystal forms of . Limestone forms w ...
stratigraphy of various ages. A lot of geological research in
speleology
Speleology is the scientific study of caves and other karst features, as well as their make-up, structure, physical properties, history, life forms, and the processes by which they form ( speleogenesis) and change over time (speleomorphology) ...
, tectonics and
petrology
Petrology () is the branch of geology that studies rocks and the conditions under which they form. Petrology has three subdivisions: igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary petrology. Igneous and metamorphic petrology are commonly taught together ...
has been done, but this rarely focuses on large closed karst depressions like uvalas. The 'Funtensee-Uvala' (
Steinernes Meer of the
Berchtesgaden Alps
The Berchtesgaden Alps (german: Berchtesgadener Alpen) are a mountain range of the Northern Limestone Alps, named after the market town of Berchtesgaden located in the centre. The central part belongs to the Berchtesgadener Land district of sou ...
) is an exception, which was analyzed and published in the context of a project of the
Berchtesgaden National Park
Berchtesgaden National Park is in the south of Germany, on its border with Austria, in the municipalities of Ramsau bei Berchtesgaden and Schönau am Königsee, Berchtesgadener Land, Free State of Bavaria. The national park was established in 19 ...
.
World occurrences of uvalas (some examples)
Europe (examples)
*Germany (Swabian Alb, Franconian Jura), Pfeiffer (2010)
*England, Sweeting (1972)
*Ireland, Gunn (2004)
Limestone Alps
* Funtensee, Berchtesgaden, Fischer (1985)
* Venetian Prealps, Sauro (2003)
Spain
* Calaforra Chordi&Berrocal Pérez (2008)
* Palomares Martin (2012)
*Portugal, Nicod (2003)
*France, Les 'Causses', Nicod (2003)
*Romania, (Ford&Williams (2007)
*Greece, Jalov&Stamenova (2005)
*Serbia,
Rečke, Busovata, Nekudovo, Igrište, Brezovica (Carpathians, east Serbia)
Dinarides:
* Numerous uvalas in four countries, inter alia, Ćalić (2009):
* Kanji Dol, Mrzli Log, Grda Draga, etc. (Slovenia)
* Lomska Duliba, Veliki Lubenovac, Mirovo, Bilenski Padez, Duboki Dol, Ravni and Crni Dabar, etc. (Croatia)
* Rupa, Ždralovac, Klekovačka Uvala, etc. (Bosnia and Herzegovina)
* Ljeskovi Dolovi, Ubaljski Do, Illinski Do, etc. (Montenegro)
Other continents (examples)
America
* Appalachian Mountains, (Herak (1972)
* New-Mexiko, (Ford&Williams (2007)
* Oklahoma, Ford&Williams (2007)
Africa
* various, Gunn (2004)
* Marocco, Jennings (1987)
Asia
* Iran, Bosák, et al. (1999)
* China, Gunn (2004)
* South east Asia (Burma, Thailand, Cambodia, Malaysia), Gunn (2004)
Australia
*(Tasmania), Jennings (1987)
*New Zealand, Jennings (1987)
File:Carbonate-outcrops world.jpg, Outcropping limestone
Limestone ( calcium carbonate ) is a type of carbonate sedimentary rock which is the main source of the material lime. It is composed mostly of the minerals calcite and aragonite, which are different crystal forms of . Limestone forms w ...
(without evaporite
An evaporite () is a water- soluble sedimentary mineral deposit that results from concentration and crystallization by evaporation from an aqueous solution. There are two types of evaporite deposits: marine, which can also be described as ocean ...
s), Ca. 20% of icefree land
Land, also known as dry land, ground, or earth, is the solid terrestrial surface of the planet Earth that is not submerged by the ocean or other bodies of water. It makes up 29% of Earth's surface and includes the continents and various isla ...
File:Veliki-Lubenovac Uvala NatPark-NVelebit Dinarides Croatia 1.jpg, Veliki Lubenovac, North Velebit
File:Uvala Ravni-Dabar Velebit Dinarides Croatia.jpg, Ravni Dabar, Middle Velebit
File:Uvala-Duboki-Dol NVelebit Dinarides Croatia.jpg, Duboki Dol, South Velebit
See also
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
References
External links
The Geographical Cycle, Davis, William M., 1899Souterraine et Evolution Morphologique du Karst, Cvijić, J., Review by Sanders, E.M. Geographical Review, 1921Glossary of Karst and Cave Terms, Washington D.C., 2002Karst processes from the beginning to the end: How can they be dated?, P. Bosák, 2003
Literature
Cvijić 1893, Das Karstphänomen. Versuch eine morphologischen Monographie. Cvijić, Jovan. in: Geographische Abhandlungen A. Penck, (Hrsg), Bd. V, Heft 3, Wien
Davies, (1899), The Geographical Cycle, Davis, William M., The Geographical Journal, Vol. 14, No. 5 (Nov., 1899), pp. 481–504
Cvijić (1901), Morphologische und glaziale Studien aus Bosnien, Herzegowina und Montenegro. II Teil, Die Karstpoljen, Cvijić, Jovan. in: Abhandlungen der K. K. Geograph. Gesellsch., Bd. III, Heft 2, Wien 1901
Grund (1903), Die Karsthydrographie: Studien aus Westbosnien. Grund, A., Geographischen Abhandlungen, Band VII, Heft 3, von A. Penck, 7, pp. 103–200.
Grund (1914), Der geographische Zyklus im Karst. Grund, A., Gesellschaft für Erdkunde, 52, 621–40.
ranslated into English in Sweeting (1981).
Cvijić (1921), Souterraine et Evolution Morphologique du Karst, Cvijić, J., Review by Sanders, E.M. in: Geographical Review, Vol. 11, No. 4 (Oct., 1921), pp. 593–604
Cvijić, (1925) Types morphologiques des terrains calcaires. Cvijić, J., Comptes Rendus, Académie des Sciences (Paris), 180, 592, 757, 1038.
Poljak (1951), Is a karst uvala a transitional form between a doline and a karst polje?, Polak, J., Croatian Geographical Bulletin, 13, Zagreb, 1951
Cvijić (1960), La geographie des terrains calcaires. Academie serbe des sciences et des arts, Cvijić, J., Monographie tome CCCXLI, Classe de sciences mathématique et naturelles, 26, 1–212
Fairbridge (1968), The encyclopedia of Geomorphology, Fairbridge, R.W., New York, N.Y., 1968
Herak (1972), Karst, important Karst regions of the northern Hemisphere, Herak, M., Stringfield, V. T., Amsterdam 1972
UNESCO (1972), Glossary and Multilingual Equivalents of Karst Terms. UNESCO, Paris 1972.
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External links
{{Commons category, position=left, Uvalas (karst)
Limestone formations
Environment of the Balkans
Geography of Southeastern Europe
Geomorphology
Slavic words and phrases
Dinaric Alps
Dinaric karst formations
Karst formations